• 제목/요약/키워드: northern bronze culture

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중국(中國) 하북성북부(河北省北部) "옥황묘문화(玉皇廟文化)" 연구 (A Study of the Yuhuangmiao culture of the mountain area of northern Hebei in China)

  • 정대영
    • 헤리티지:역사와 과학
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    • 제37권
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    • pp.91-120
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    • 2004
  • 중국(中國) 하북성북부(河北省北部)의 연산산지(燕山山地)와 주변지역은 춘추(春秋) 전국(戰國)시기(B.C770~B.C221년(年)) 북방계청동문화(北方系靑銅文化)의 주요 분포지역으로 분류된다. 최근 군도산(軍都山)일대의 옥황묘묘지(玉皇廟墓地)에서 진행된 대규모 발굴조사를 통하여 그 구체적인 문화성격이 확인되면서 중국학계에서는 이 지역의 문화적 성격을 기존의 주변지역의 청동기문화와는 구별하여 독립적인 문화유형으로 설정하고 있다. 본문(本文)에서는 춘추(春秋) 전국(戰國)시기 하북성북부산지(河北省北部山地)일대의 "옥황묘문화(玉皇廟文化)" 관련 유적들을 분석대상으로 하여 묘제(墓制)와 장속(葬俗) 및 출토유물의 특징을 중심으로 옥황묘문화의 성격과 주변지역 청동기문화와의 다원적인 영향관계에 대해 살펴보고자 한다. 특히 하가점상층(夏家店上層)문화와 오르도스청동기문화 및 연국계(燕國系)중원문화와의 다원적인 형태의 영향관계는 옥황묘문화의 성격과 계기적 발전과정을 이해하는데 있어서 매우 중요한 의미를 가진다. 결과적으로 상징적 형태의 석곽(石槨)이 결부된 수혈식토광묘(竪穴式土壙墓), 구(狗)위주의 동물순장(動物殉葬)과 복면장속(覆面葬俗), 단경고복관(短頸鼓腹罐), 삼족쌍이관(三足雙耳罐), 원병형수단검(圓餠形首短劍), 다량의 중원계청동용기(中原系靑銅容器)와 동과(銅戈) 및 차마구(車馬具)의 공반현상, 호형(虎形) 마형동물패식(馬形動物牌飾) 등으로 대표되는 특징들은 주변지역 북방계청동기문화와는 구별되는 옥황묘문화의 고유한 문화적 특징이라 할 수 있다. 옥황묘문화의 시 공간적 범위는 대체로 주변의 하가점상층문화(夏家店上層文化)와 오르도스청동문화 사이로 설정할 수 있으며, 묘제(墓制)와 장속(葬俗) 및 출토유물에 반영된 고유한 문화적 특징과 주변문화와의 다양한 영향관계를 통하여 볼 때 전국중기(戰國中期)이후 연문화(燕文化)에 의해 대체된다.

구분마연 기술로 본 한국식동검문화의 개시 연대 - 중국 자료의 편년을 통하여 - (The Commencement Period of the Korean Type Bronze Dagger Culture, Seen from the Condition of the Section Polishing Technique - Through the Chronology of Chinese Data -)

  • 허준양
    • 헤리티지:역사와 과학
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    • 제50권3호
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    • pp.4-29
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    • 2017
  • 본 글은 중국 자료의 편년을 통해 한국식동검문화의 개시 연대를 파악하는 데 목적을 두었다. 여기에서는 한반도의 한국식동검과 중국의 동주식동검에 동일한 구분마연 기술이 존재하는 점을 주목하였다. A1식 구분마연 기술이 관찰되는 동주식동검은 '1958년 산동성 안구시 수습품'으로 전해져 명확한 출토양상을 파악할 수 없다. 때문에 비교자료인 제남 좌가와 1호묘 출토 동주식동검과 공반품을 제시하였다. 공반품은 청동무기, 청동예기 등이 출토되어 유적의 연대는 춘추-전국시대 과도기~전국시대 전기로 편년된다. 출토된 양 동검은 형식학적 유사성 및 편년적 위치를 동일하게 설정할 수 있게 된다. 따라서 한반도 제유적 출토의 한국식동검은 중국 출토 A1식 구분마연 기술의 동주식동검과 일정기간 병행되어 성립되는 것으로 볼 수 있다. 또한 A2식 구분마연 기술이 확인되는 산서성 만영묘전 61M1호묘의 연대는 전국시대 전기~중기로 편년되며 A1식 구분마연 기술과 연동되어 전개되는 것으로 확인된다. 결국 중국 자료의 편년을 통해 볼 때 한국식동검문화의 개시 연대는 춘추-전국시대 과도기~전국시대 전기로 이해되고, 기원전 5~4세기로 편년된다. 이와 같은 연대는 기원전 6~5세기로 편년되는 심양 정가와자 6512호묘에 후행되며 요령식동검문화와 한국식동검문화는 자연스럽게 연동되는 것을 알 수 있다. 나아가 A1식 구분마연 기술은 한반도 서남부지역과 중국 산동반도, A2식 구분마연 기술은 한반도 남부지역과 중국 산서지역 및 일본 북부구주지역에 분포한다. 구분마연 기술의 무기형청동기를 통해 볼 때 중국 산동반도(중원지역) ${\leftrightarrows}$ 한반도 서남부지역(서북부지역) ${\leftrightarrows}$ 일본 북부구주지역은 하나의 교통로(전파 경로)로 설정된다. 이는 한반도를 중심으로 구분마연 기술이 출현하고, 지역적 확산이 전개되는 바이다.

고고학으로 본 흉노(匈奴)의 발생과 분포 (The Contemporary Researches of the Xiongnu Archaeology)

  • 강인욱
    • 헤리티지:역사와 과학
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    • 제36권
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    • pp.105-156
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    • 2003
  • Archaeological research on the Xiongnu began in the late 19th century by a Russian archaeologist Talko-Grinchevich. The Xiongnu culture has been reported in the northern steppe of China and eastern part of Eurasian steppe. Mainly, Xiongnu sites, dated from the late 2nd century B.C. to the 1st century A.D., are reported on the east side of Baikal Lake(Zabaikal), east Mongolia, and the Inner Mongolia of China. Based on the historical records and the archaeological remains, the North Xiongnu culture is defined to be the remains of Zabaikal, and the South Xiongnu culture the archaeological remains of Nothern China. The expelled North Xiongnu, while fleeing to the western part of Eurasia, left traces of their own archaeological remains in the Southern Kazakhstan, Xinjiang of China, Altai, and finally appeared in the Europe as Huns. The most characteristic archaeological materials of the Xiongnu are bronze plaques and ceramics made by handicraft, and highly developed iron weapons. After the power of the Xiongnu was dissolved in 1st c. A.D., previously subordinated peoples such as Xianbi, Wuhuan, Wusun rised in the Eurasia steppes and opened medieval age in Eurasia. The "northern type" materials found in Korea are dated to the period of Xiongnu or slightly later, we need to pay more attention to the contemporary Xiongnu. research.

몽골 도르릭나르스 흉노 무덤 2~4호분 출토 청동 및 금제 유물 분석 (Analysis of Bronze Artifacts and Gold Ornaments Excavated from Xiongnu Tombs No. 2~4 at Duurlig Nars in Mongolia)

  • 유혜선
    • 보존과학회지
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    • 제28권2호
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    • pp.175-184
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    • 2012
  • 본 연구는 몽골 도르릭나르스 유적 2호, 3호 및 4호분에서 출토된 청동제 및 금제 유물에 대한 과학적 분석 결과로부터 각 유적 출토품의 특징을 알아보는데 그 목적이 있다. 몽골의 흉노무덤인 도르릭나르스 유적 2호, 3호 및 4호분은 비교적 소형이고, 도굴 된 상태였음에도 불구하고 많은 유물이 다양하게 출토되었다. 특히 출토 유물에는 중국계 유물과 북방계 유물이 공존하고 있어 매우 중요한 유적으로 평가되고 있다. 먼저 청동 용기류의 경우 중국제인 한경이나 일산살 꼭지의 성분 조성과는 달리 주석에 비하여 납의 함유량이 높은 특징을 보였는데, 특히 2호의 청동쟁반, 청동등잔 그리고 4호의 청동솥의 경우는 주석이 1wt% 정도로 적게 함유되어 있어 Cu-Pb의 2원계 합금 조성을 보였다. 금제품의 경우는 2호분 장식품의 제작에 비교적 높은 순도의 금이 사용된 것으로 조사되었으며, 금제 누금 장식의 금 알갱이의 접합에는 금과 구리를 합금한 금땜이 사용되었거나 확산접합(말라카이트나 산화구리 화합물 가루를 사용함)에 의하여 접합했을 가능성이 높았다. 향후 몽골지역 뿐만 아니라 다른 지역의 흉노 무덤 출토품에 대한 과학적 조사 및 분석이 더 많이 진행된다면 흉노 문화에 대한 더 많은 문제들을 해결할 수 있는 실마리를 제공하게 될 것이다.

중국문헌을 통해본 중세 동남아의 불교문화(II) (Some Views for the Buddhist Culture of Southeast Asia at Middle Ages through the Chinese Description (II))

  • 주수완
    • 수완나부미
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    • 제4권1호
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    • pp.57-90
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    • 2012
  • This essay is for a study on the survey of buddhist cultural literary document about the Southeast Asia by Nanqishu(南齊書), Liangshu(梁書), Chiu T'angshu(舊唐書), Hsin T'ang shu(新唐書) which are included in the Chinese Official History and Jí-shénzhōu-sānbăo-găntōng-lù(集神州三寶感通錄), Weioshu Shilao Ji (魏書 釋老志). These documents allows us to imagine next some historical states. First, these documents are recording this area, especially Funan, as a plentiful diggings of gold, silver, tin, copper, etc. These are important materials for gilt bronze sculptures. Further, this local produced gold called 'Yangmai(楊邁)' is recognized as same as Zĭmòjīn(紫磨金) in china, and these documents explains the process of producing the bronze images and golden ornaments in Southeast Asia. Specially, this plentiful materials leads them to make a 10 wei(圍) tall golden-silver image which worshiped as hindu god or sometimes buddhist images. Second, Vietnam and Funan in Northern and Southern Dynasty periods were in antagonistic relationship not only in the political but also in religious between Vietnamese Hinduism and Funan's Buddhism. Under this situation, the monk Nagaxian(那伽仙) who had came from India was accredited to Southern Qi court as a delegate to build a good relationship by the common religion Buddhism. It means the Buddhism of Southeast Asia also took a role of diplomacy. Third, these documents proved the active Southeast Asian cultural exchange in early 3th century. At this time, Funan delegate Suwu(蘇物) visited the court of Kushan Dynasty in India and he is seemed to travel the city of Pātaliputra. It oppressed us to extend our outlook which have been restricted in the relationship between Southern india and Southeast Asia to more broaden area. In addition, the buddhist art of Southern India and Bodhgaya temple was imported to Southeast Asia directly to send to Southern China. For example, the wooden buddha image, Bodhgaya stupa image, and Sri Lanka style's buddha images are looked be introduced to Southern China at this time throughout the Southeast Asia. At last, we got to know that the court music of Kucha in the northern silk route was imported to the Southeast Asia in early middle age. Even it may be introduced by China, but this document is very important to make the surmise is not unreasonable that the buddhist culture of northern silk route imported to the Southeast Asia accompanied with Kucha music. The buddha images in Gandharan style which are excavated from some site of Southeast Asia may demonstrate this literary sources is authentic.

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황룡사 창건 구층목탑 단상 (A Study on the Architecture of the Original Nine-Story Wooden Pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple)

  • 이주헌
    • 헤리티지:역사와 과학
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    • 제52권2호
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    • pp.196-219
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    • 2019
  • "삼국유사(三國遺事)"에 의하면 황룡사 구층목탑은 백제의 장인 아비지(阿非知)에 의해 선덕여왕 13년(645)에 건립된 것으로 전한다. 이후 고려 고종 25년(1238) 몽고군의 침략으로 사찰이 완전히 불타버리기 전까지 약 700년 동안 당시대인의 정신문화 속에서 최고의 자리를 차지하는 상징이자 호국불교의 구심체로서 존재하였다. 그동안 많은 연구자들이 문헌기록과 발굴조사 자료를 근거로 황룡사 창건 목탑에 대한 구조와 전체적인 형태에 대한 다양한 복원안을 제시해왔다. 하지만 그들이 제시한 황룡사 목탑의 모습은 기본적으로 현재 남아 있는 목탑지의 외형적인 형태와 단순한 목구조를 가정한 사각구층의 형태였다. 이는 관련 자료의 부족과 제한된 지식으로 인해 황룡사 창건 목탑의 기술적 계보에 대한 충분한 인식이 부족한 시기에 이루어진 것이어서 새로운 자료의 발견과 고대 대형 불탑의 구조 체계에 대한 인식 정도에 따라 충분히 수정될 수 있을 것으로 생각한다. 본고에서는 2005년부터 진행된 <황룡사 복원 연구>를 통해 정리된 목탑지에 대한 재분석 자료를 근거로 동아시아 고대 불탑의 구조 체계에 대한 폭넓은 이해 속에서 황룡사 창건 목탑의 계보와 구조에 대한 새로운 인식이 필요함을 제안해보고자 한다. 황룡사 창건 목탑은 통일신라와 고려시대에 걸쳐 적어도 두 번의 큰 중창을 겪는 동안 기단의 규모와 평면 형식 등이 변화된 것으로 추정되며, 이에 따라 상부 구조에도 큰 변화가 있었을 것으로 파악된다. 발굴조사 결과 드러난 유구에서 삼국시대에 만들어진 것으로 전하는 구층목탑과 관련된 흔적은 현재 판축으로 조성된 기단토와 심초석 정도이며, 그외 초석과 기단 석재 등 대부분은 9세기 이후의 것일 가능성이 높다. 따라서 황룡사 창건 목탑의 실질적인 구조는 당시 동아시아 대형 불탑의 변화과정 속에서 이해하여야 하며, 기술적 계보는 북조의 영향을 받은 백제의 대형 불탑에서 찾아야 할 것이다. 나아가 남산 탑곡 마애조상군에 표현된 9층 마애탑의 모습과 황룡사지 강당지에서 출토된 금동제 불탑 난간편 분석을 통하여 파악된 고고자료를 근거로 황룡사 창건 목탑의 이미지를 추정해본다면 외형상으로뿐만 아니라 구조적으로도 지금까지 우리가 인식하고 있던 순수한 목구조를 한 사각구층탑과는 다른 형태로 파악되는데, 아마도 실심체를 갖춘 이원 구조의 팔각구층탑일 것으로 파악된다.

고려의 원시영역 유목초지, 그 부르칸(불함)이즘과 한국축산의 비전 (Burqanism from the Origin of the Pastoral Nomadic Koryo Region and the Vision of Korean Livestock Farming)

  • 주채혁
    • 한국초지조사료학회지
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    • 제25권1호
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    • pp.71-82
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    • 2005
  • Khori(高麗) refers to the Chaabog(reindeer) that live on lichens(蘚) on Mt. Soyon(鮮) in which pastures are the cold and dry plateau of North Eurasia. Thus, the origin region of the Khori or Koguryo that are the ancestors of the reindeer-herding pastoral nomads(馴鹿 遊牧民) can be said to be the Steppe-Taiga-Tundra pastoral areas of North Eurasia and North America. When the pastoral nomads moved on to the great mountain(大山) zone of the Jangbaek(長白) to the Baekdu(白頭) Mountains, they could have been in contact with pastoral farmers or agricultural farmers living there and they became the farmers remaining on agricultural farms. They were the Koryo people, the ancestors of Korea. Staying in one place, they gradually forgot the origin of their reindeer-herding pastoral nomadic history in the Northwest area of Mt. Soyon, the small mountain(小山) zone of the Steppe-Taiga-Tundra pastoral areas. In other words, they lost their identity as reindeer-herding pastoral nomads when they entered the agricultural area after leaving the pastoral area. However, since their basic genes had already formed when they lived on the cold and dry plateau of North Eurasia, it is possible to study their pastoral nomadic history focusing on 'the minority living in the broad area(廣域少數)', by utilizing highly advanced biotechnological science and focusing on genes and information technology innovation, and removing various past hindrances in research. Therefore, it is not so difficult to restore the reindeerherding pastoral nomadic history of the Koguryo(高句麗) people and secure their pastoral nomadic identity, of which the first steps have already been taken into their historical stages. The Eurasian continent and the Korean peninsula, especially the cold and dry plateau of North Eurasia and the Korean peninsula have been closely related to each other ecologically and historically. They can never be a separate space at all. The Eurasian continent lies horizontally east to west and thus, the continent forms an isothermal zone. Also, since the time of producing their own foods, it was relatively easy for people with their technology to move to other places owing to the pastoral nomadic characteristic of mobility. Unlike the Chungyen(中原) region, western Asia and the regions covering the Siberia-Manchu-Korean peninsula where food production revolution was first made were connected to the Mongolian lichens route(蘚苔之路: Ni, ukinii jam) and steppe roads. Although the ecological conditions of nature have changed a bit throughout a long history, it was natural for the many tribes in North Asia living on the largest Steppe-Taiga-Tundra area in the world to have believed 'the legends related to animals in relation to their founders and ancestors(獸祖傳說)'. Assuming that Siberian tigers and the tigers living on Mt. Baekdu were connected ecologically and genetically because of the ecological characteristics of the animals, and their migration from plateau to plateau, we would suspect that the Chosun(朝鮮) tribe living on Mt. Baekdu were ethnically and culturally more closely connected to the farther removed Ural-Altai tribes that lived on the cold and dry plateau region than to the Han(i14;) tribe who lived in Chungyen(中原) that was close to Mt. Baekdu. More evidence is the structure of the Korean language which has the form of 'Subject + Object + Verb', which is assumed to have originated from the speedy lifestyle of the reindeer-herding pastoral nomads. The structure is quite different from that of the Han(漢) language, which is based on agricultural life. Also, it is natural for reindeer riding reindeerherding pastoral nomads or horse-riding sheep-herding pastoral nomads(騎馬, 羊遊牧民) to have held military and political power over the region and eventually to have established an ancient pastoral nomadic empire in the process of their conquest of agricultural regions. The stages for founding global empires in the history of mankind maybe largely divided into two, in terms of ecological conditions and occupations. They are the steppes and the oceans. Of course, the steppe-based empires were established based on the skills to deal with horses and the ability to shoot arrows while riding horses, along with the use of iron ware in the 8th century BC. The steppe-based empires became the foundation for an oceanic empire, which could have been established by the use of warships and warship guns since the 15th Century. Based on those facts, we know that Chosun, Puyo(夫餘), and Koguryo are the products of a developmental process of pastoral nomadic empires on the steppes. Maybe we can easily find the pastoral nomadic identity of the Koguryo more than we expected when we trace the origins and history of the Korean tribe living in the pastures located in the northwest area of Mt. Jangbaek by focusing on pastoral nomadic mobility and organization just as we have investigated the historic origins of Anglo-Saxons in America by focusing on the times before the 15th Century. In the process, we should keep in mind that English culture originated from the Industrial Revolution and was directly delivered to the American continent, although America was far from England and was not an intermediate point on long sojourns either. Further, American culture came back to England in a more advanced form later. The most important thing currently to be resolved is to cause Koreans to look back on their own history in a freer way of thinking and with diverse, profound, and sharp insight, taking away the old and existing conventional recognition that is entangled with complicated interests with Korean people and other countries. The meanings of Chosun, Khori, and Solongos have been interpreted arbitrarily without any historic evidence by the scholars who followed conventional tradition of fixed-minded aristocrats in an agricultural society. If the Siberian cultural properties of the stone age, the earthenware age, the bronze age, and the iron age are analyzed in such a way, archaeological discovery will never be able to contribute to the restoration of the Koguryo's pastoral nomadic identity. One should transcend the errors that tend to interpret the cultural properties discovered in the pastoral nomadic regions as not being differentiated from those of agricultural regions and just interpret them altogether from the agricultural point of view. A more careful intention is required in the interpretation of cultural properties of ancient Korean empires that seem to have been formed due to mutual interactions of pastoral nomadic and agricultural cultures. Also, it is required that the conventional recognition chain of 'reverse-genes' be severed, which has placed more weight on agricultural properties than pastoral nomadic ones, since their settlement on agricultural farms was made after the establishment of their ancient pastoral nomadic empires. There is no reason at all to place priority on stoneware, earthenware, bronze ware, and iron ware than on wooden ware(木器) and other ware which were made of animal skins(皮器), bones and horns(骨角器), in analyzing the history in the regions of reindeer or sheep pastures. Reading ancient Korean history from the perspective of pastoral nomadic history, one feels strongly the instinctive emotions to return to the natural 'mother place'. The reindeer-herding pastoral nomadic identity of the Koguryo people that has been accumulated in volumes in their genes and hidden deep inside and have interacted organically could be reborn with Burqanism(Burqan refers to 不咸 in Chinese), which was their religion by birth and symbolized as the red willow(紅柳=不咸). The mother place of the Koguryo's people is the endless vast green pastures of North Eurasia and North America, where we anticipated the development of Korean livestock farming following the inherent properties in the genes of the reindeer-herding pastoral nomads with Korean ancestors. We anticipate that the place would be the core resource that could contribute to the development of life of living creatures following the inherent properties of their genes and biotechnological factors. In other words, biotechnology used for a search for clues on the well-being of humans could be the fruit brought by Burqanism of the Koguryo people and the fruit of the globalization of Korean livestock farming. It is the Chosun farmer in China come from the vast nomadic reindeer pastures of North Eurasia that resolved the food problem of a billion Chinese people with lowland paddy rice seeds (水稻) by transforming Heilongjiang Province(黑龍江省) into an oceanic lowland paddy rice field(水田). Even Mao Tse-tung(毛擇東) could not resolve the food problem by his revolution campaigns for tens of years. Today is the very time that requires the development of special livestock farming following the inherent properties of the ancient Korean reindeer-herding pastoral nomads that respected the dignity of life on the cold and dry plateau of North Eurasia and the America continent. I suggest that research should be started from the pastures of the Dariganga Steppe in East Mongolia that was the homeland of Hanwoo(韓牛) and the central horse-herding steppe place(牧馬場) of Chingis Khan's Mongolia. The Dariganga Steppe is awash with an affluent natural environment for pastoral nomadic living however, the quality of life of the pastoral nomads there is still low. I suggest we Koreans, the descendents of the Koguryo, should take our first steps for our livestock farming business project and develop the Northern nomadic pastures, here at the pastures of the Dariganga Steppe, which is the Mongolian core place of state-of-the-art technology for military weapons.