• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.42 no.4
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• pp.198-221
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• 2009

Royal tombs of Joseon dynasty are the crystallization of history, ideology, culture, art, architecture, and ritual ceremony of Joseon dynasty, all mingled in one. So, they are very significant symbols showing 500 years of dynastic history as a whole. Among various factors comprising a royal tomb, stone figures surrounding grave mound are special factors as a symbol protecting it. Further among them, twelve zodiac images arrayed nearest to the grave mound represent the core of the function. Images of twelve zodiac signs originated from the tombs of the Unified Silla Kingdom are certain to hold important role and position in the construction of royal tombs, judging from huge scale and excellent sculptural art of them. However, both their scale and form had been gradually simplified in Goryeo and Joseon dynasty, thus the importance of them has been underestimated compared to other stone figures Images of twelve zodiac signs were very important factors which decorated royal tombs both as a protective role and as a concept of direction. Their historicity and symbolism cannot be neglected in that they had been transmitted to the royal tombs of Joseon dynasty. In this paper, images of twelve zodiac signs expressed in the royal tombs of Joseon dynasty are classified into 3 forms, and reviewed the origin and development of them for each period. They could be classified into 3 forms ; civil vassals with human body and head, civil vassals with human body and head wearing hat decorated with zodiac animals, Chinese characters of either zodiac signs or either a combination of 10 calendar signs and 8 trigrams. The above 3 forms originated from China and became a favorite motif to decorate the royal tombs from early Joseon period until late Joseon by replacing each other and thus changing along the course of the dynasty. In the meantime, we can see a unique character in the images of twelve zodiac signs of royal tombs of Joseon dynasty. In some cases, 24 directions are expressed in which 10 calender signs and 8 trigrams are composed altogether. Images of twelve zodiac signs in the royal bombs of Joseon dynasty are very significant as evidences by which we can confirm uniqueness and tradition of Korean tomb system transmitted from Unified Silla period.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.46 no.1
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• pp.102-123
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• 2013

This paper is a study about the Gang Sehwang's (姜世晃 1713~1791) Ink Orchid Painting. Gang Sehwang is a representative literati gentleman who painted Four Gentlemen, for the first time, during the late Joseon Dynasty. There are 20 pieces of Ink Orchid Painting of his in Korea. His recognition of the Ink Orchid Painting can be understood through his records and analysis of his Ink Orchid Painting. He considered the sketch from the nature (寫生), practice of old paintings (古畵), and copy-training of the manual of paintings (畵譜). Particularly, Gang Sehwang focused on the copy-training of old paintings (古畵臨倣) which integrates the will and spirit of old literati gentlemen. This means that he had recognized the picture as a means of 'literature carrying morality (載道). Also, we could read self-discipline (修己的) values from his continuative copy-training of the manual of paintings (畵譜臨倣). Next, his Ink Orchid Painting were divided into the first half of the term (his 30s to 40s) and the second half of the term (his 60s to 78 years old). He had polished up on the Jieziyuanhuazhan ("芥子園畵傳") during the first half of the term and on the Shizhuzhaishuhuapu ("十竹齋書畵譜") or the Maejuknanguksabo ("梅竹蘭菊四譜") during the second half of the term. Therefore, it could be understood that he had depended on the manual of paintings (畵譜) for a long time. Nevertheless, he had completed the elegant and graceful Pyeoam Orchid (豹菴蘭)' based on his skill of the manual of paintings (畵譜) in his 70s. Finally, the 18th century Ink Orchid Painting and painters who lived (worked) at that time were investigated. He made?? the Albums of Calligraphy and Painting (書畵合壁帖) with Shim Sajeong (沈師正) and Choi Buk (崔北). They also interacted with each other by Calligraphy and Painting (書畵). Also, Yi Insang (李麟祥) and Im Heeji (林熙之) contributed to the diversification of the 18th century Ink Orchid Painting style by imitating Ink Orchid Painting with the manual of paintings (畵譜). Moreover, it is meaningful that the Ink Orchid Painting of Gang Se-hwang and the18th century Ink Orchid painters influenced the foundation of the 19th century Ink Orchid Painting fashion.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.43 no.4
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• pp.24-55
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• 2010

Jangmyeongdeung Lantern (貞陵長明燈) refers to the stone lantern placed in front of the royal tomb. It serves both symbolic and decorative purposes; symbolic because it is supposed to guard and illuminate the buried, and decorative because it is a work of sculpture that adorns the entire graveyard. The Jangmyeongdeung of Jeongneung was the earliest stone lantern to be produced during the Joseon period. Its square shape is unique among those from the early to mid-Joseon period. The three major parts of Jangmyeongdeung - the stand, the lantern, and the roof-shaped cover parts - are square in shape, differing from the octagonal shaped Jangmyeongdeung. The stand consists of three single stone blocks, the Hadaeseok(下臺石), Ganjuseok(竿柱石), and Sangdaeseok(上臺石). The Hwasaseok(火舍石), or the lantern part, is also a single stone block. Jangmyeongdeung of Jeongneung succeeds the style of those of Hyeon-neung and Jeongneung(玄正陵) of the Goryeo period and is of a better artistic quality. As the first Jangmyeongdeung lantern, it is a refined work of art that marks the foundation of the Joseon Kingdom. This paper tries to ascertain the stylistic origin of the square-shaped Jangmyeongdeung of Jeongneung and compare it with those of Buddhist temples. Consequently, similarities were found among the stone lanterns of Zen priests 'Jigong'(指空) and 'Nawong'(懶翁) in the Hweamsa Temple(檜巖寺) site from the late Goryeo period, those of Zen priest 'Muhak'(無學) of the Hweamsa Temple site, and those of national priest 'Bogak'(普覺) of Cheongnyongsa Temple(靑龍寺) from the early Joseon period. Primarily, this is because the three components(the stand, the lantern part, and the roof-shaped cover) are essentially square-shaped. Second, as the Ganjuseok(one of the components of the stand) became shorter, the stand took a more stable form. Third, the Hwasaseok(the lantern part) consists of two stone blocks joined together. Fourth, the roof-shaped cover is also in square in shape. Similarly, the Jangmyeongdeung of Jeongneung contains Buddhist elements as well. The three-bead pattern that decorates the Ganjuseok stand is an example. The three-bead pattern is one of the symbolic elements related to Tantric Buddhism. It is found on the diadems worn by Bodhisattvas from the Goryeo and early Joseon periods. The Jangmyeongdeung of Jeongneung in early Joseon directly influenced the production of the square-shaped stone lanterns used to decorate the tombs during the Joseon period. After the latter half of the 15th century, however, the octagonal-shaped Jangmyeongdeung style began to prevail. The Jangmyeongdeung of Jeongneung reflects the succession of the tradition of royal tombs from Goryeo to Joseon, the introduction of square-shaped stone lanterns to Buddhist temples, and the influence of the Buddhist philosophy of the time. It is a living testimony to various elements of each time and corresponding cultural trends.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.49 no.3
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• pp.12-31
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• 2016

Gangwon Provincial Office, which is Historical Landmark No. 439, existed from 1395 to 1895. It played a significant role of provincial administration. Gangwon Provincial Office was rebuilt in the $17^{th}$ Century when governors' additional job system began. It had 50 buildings and 670 sections. During the Japanese colonial era and the Korean War, most of the buildings were demolished, and in 2005 partially restored. Currently, after the old Wonju City Post Office was demolished, the back garden facilities of the Provincial Office are being restored. The back garden of Gangwon Provincial Office was completely destroyed when the Japanese army base at Wonju made it a playing field during the Japanese colonial era. After demolishing the old post office in the back garden, excavation and investigation were made. A pond and building relics were found, but they were too damaged to be restored. However, this thesis found that there were Bongraekak, Yeongjusa(Kwanpungkak), Cheyako, Joojeong Rainbow Bridge after studying literature and paintings. There were also Hwansunjeong and Bangjangdae outside the pond. The names of the back garden and how they were made are related to hsien. In the pond, they made 3 islands signifying Mt. Samshin(immortal world) in the legend and built pavilions on that. The pavilions of the back garden were named Bongrae, Yeongju, and Bangjang, and the titles of other pavilions also had the names of hsien. The back garden of Gangwon Provincial Office was made like an immortal world, befitting its role of governing Mt. Bongrae(Mt. Geumgang.) The governors of Gangwon Province often went to the back garden and enjoyed becoming a hsien. They regarded themselves as the owners of Bongrae, i.e., the immortal world. Gangwon Provincial Office has a unique historical significance because it implemented an immortal world, making use of the characteristic of Gangwon Province.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.51 no.4
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• pp.108-119
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• 2018

"The Collection of Yi Chungmugong" manuscript is a hand-written manuscript of the volume 1 consisting of the Collection, published in 1795 and it seems to have completed the contents of the book by correcting the first part of the book before print. The book adopted a form of Seonjangbon(線裝本) of Ochimanjeongbeop(五針眼訂法) and was urgently needed some measures to preserve because it has been much damaged by stains, loss and oxidation due to moisture on the bottom of it. In addition, a scientific investigation was applied to find out the features of the quality of paper and fiber used for the book, which would be reflected in the process of the preservation. The characteristics of paper were measurmented for size(cm), thickness(mm), weight(g), basis weight($g/m^2$), density($g/cm^3$), chain line and laid lines($3{\times}3cm$). The measurement showed that the characteristics of paper used in royal books published in the late Joseon Dynasty. For the paper-fiber of the book, C stain was used and the technique revealed that the book is made of bast fibre of paper mulberry and its binding strings are cotton. SEM-EDS analysis was performed to verify the existence of additives in paper. As a result of the analysis, The crystallized calcium was detected in addition to the main components carbon(C) and oxygen(O). This artifact is the unique final version of "The collection of Yi Chungmugong", which has considerable value in terms of academic research, besides it helps to understand how to print books of Joseon Dynasty. And it also has a very accurate information of when and where the book was made, which primarily could be resources to conserve and restore for other book heritage.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.47 no.4
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• pp.22-47
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• 2014

This study was to understand the basic principles of the East Asian wooden structure system research and analysis. The Korea and China ancient architecture internal structure research that the combination of girders and crossbeams position. The ancient wooden structures of eastern Asian countries, Korea and China are not much different from each other in the principles of the wooden architecture structure, combining pillars, purlins and crossbeams. However, it seems that age-division, local-division, national-division differs in detail techniques. China ancient wooden structures combination of purlin and crossbeam, and So-seul Timber(Chinese name: Chashou叉手, Tuojiao 托脚) seems to show differences according to the age of the fulcrum position, detailed approach is also different according to various historical dynasty. Before in the 15th century, Purlin and Crossbeam are coupled to each other, but since the 15th century, seems to have developed a technique combined with each other Girder and Crossbeam and to prevent buckling of the Crossbeam cross-sectional area increased dramatically. For Tuojiao in China Tang-Wudai dynasty(A.D. 618~979), can see that saw the top position Girder and Tuojiao no direct coupling, can be seen as maintaining the safety of the material than the material of the inner wooden structures prevent buckling of the purlin. Korea ancient wooden structures of Goryeo dynasty(A.D. 918~1391), So-seul Timber(Chinese name Tuojiao) why do not to use the fashion? To use Purlin Lower backing material techniques to prevent buckling is a popular trend to stable can be thought of as a preferred way to maintain. I think that with universality beyond the local-division, national-division and the two countries since the 15th century of Korea and China ancient wooden structures detailed mechanism for the purlin buckling. In middle-late Chosen dynasty, The effect of Deotgeolyi- techniques and fleeting beams reduce the purlin buckling that reduces the load transmitted from purlin and crossbeam of how to reduce the load on the roof portion of the architecture fleeting beams used, which of craftsmanship of the Chosen Dynasty building can be referred to as another technique for preventing buckling purlin. This Korea and China ancient architecture purlin beam structure and material So-seul Timber study. Seems to be able to provide a basic research study to restore and designed the old wooden architectures.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.47 no.2
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• pp.46-67
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• 2014

The Dinosaur track-bearing deposits recently found at Bangudae Petroglyph site in Ulju (National Treasure No. 285) have been studied in the aspects of sedimentology, paleoenvironments, and significance in natural history. The dinosaur tracks occur in the Daegu Formation (late Early Cretaceous), and over 80 footprints including 43 ornithopod footprints, 36 sauropod footprints, and 2 theropod footprints are preserved in this tracksite. The track-bearing deposits consist of irregularly interlaminated siltstone and mudstone, calcareous sandy to silty mudstone, thin-bedded tuffaceous sandstone, planar- to cross-laminated sandstone, and thin- to medium-bedded graded sandstone, and they are interpreted to be sheetflood deposits on an alluvial plain. Diverse types of ripples and mudcracks, rainprints, and invertebrate trace fossils are observed in these deposits, and the crest-lines of wave ripples do not show preferred orientation. Dinosaur footprints occur as true prints, underprints, overtracks, and casts on the bedding surfaces, and the orientation of trackways are scattered. It is interpreted that paleoclimatic condition of the track-bearing deposits were semiarid with alternation of wetting and drying periods, and that dinosaurs frequented small and shallow ponds during wetting periods and recorded their tracks on an alluvial plain. The frequent occurrence of dinosaur tracks in study area indicates that the Cretaceous deposits around Daegokcheon Stream are very useful sedimentological and paleontological records to understand the paleoecology and paleoenvironments during the dinosaur age in Korean Peninsula. Consequently the dinosaur track-bearing deposits around Daegokcheon Stream should be further studied in sedimentary geology and paleontology in order to enhance cultural heritage value of the Petroglyphs of Bangudae Terrace as the World Heritage.

• Korean Journal of Agricultural and Forest Meteorology
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• v.21 no.3
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• pp.167-174
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• 2019

A process-oriented crop growth model can simulate the biophysical process of rice under diverse environmental and management conditions, which would make it more versatile than an empirical crop model. In the present study, we examined chronology and background of the development of the rice growth models in Korea, which would provide insights on the needs for improvement of the models. The rice crop growth models were introduced in Korea in the late 80s. Until 2000s, these crop models have been used to simulate the yield in a specific area in Korea. Since then, improvement of crop growth models has been made to take into account biological characteristics of rice growth and development in more detail. Still, the use of the crop growth models has been limited to the assessment of climate change impact on crop production. Efforts have been made to apply the crop growth model, e.g., the CERES-Rice model, to develop decision support system for crop management at a farm level. However, the decision support system based on a crop growth model was attractive to a small number of stakeholders most likely due to scarcity of on-site weather data and reliable parameter sets for cultivars grown in Korea. The wide use of the crop growth models would be facilitated by approaches to extend spatial availability of reliable weather data, which could be either measured on-site or estimates using spatial interpolation. New approaches for calibration of cultivar parameters for new cultivars would also help lower hurdles to crop growth models.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.52 no.3
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• pp.38-55
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• 2019

The purpose of this study is to clarify the historical flow of baekdong alloy's usage according to the alloying materials mentioned in document records. For this purpose, we first overviewed the use of copper as a base material for white copper alloys and other types of copper alloys. Baekdong is an alloy of copper and other metals and is currently defined as an alloy of copper and nickel. However, depending on the research subjects and time of the scholars, baekdong may be defined as a metal with over a certain percentage of tin added to copper, or as an alloy of tin, zinc, and lead with copper. There is disagreement regarding the interpretation of this term. Baekdong, which started to appear in the literature of the Three Kingdoms Period, has been steadily seen through the Goryeo and Chosun Dynasties to the modern period. It has been used in various ways, according to each age and culture, from the symbol of the office to trading goods, daily life goods, and money. In the literature, baekdong's alloying material is not only copper and nickel, which are currently defined as alloys, but it is the same in that copper is used as the base metal of the alloy, although it varies slightly from generation to generation. In addition to copper, tin, zeolite, and emerald, zinc and lead also appeared. It was found that baekdong, which means alloy, and baekdong, which means white metal, were mixed. Nickel, which is the alloy material of baekdong as it is currently defined, is a metal with a relatively high discovery time and is widely used as a material for modern industrial fields. Nickel was introduced into Korea at the end of the Joseon Dynasty, but its use is not known in detail. In this study, we examined the acceptance and use of nickel-based baekdong in articles of modern newspapers and in statistical data. Based on the experience of craftsmen, we estimated the period when nickel-based alloys were used in crafts. Material is a direct factor in the development and deterioration of technology, and the development of technology is the basis for the changing of civilizations and cultures. In this context, this study was to investigate baekdong with the material of alloys as a starting point.

• The Journal of the Petrological Society of Korea
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• v.28 no.3
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• pp.171-193
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• 2019

This study aims to identify the geometry and internal structures of the Yeongdeok Fault, a branch fault of the Yangsan Fault, by detailed mapping and to characterize its kinematics by analyzing the attitudes of sedimentary rocks adjacent to the fault, slip data on the fault surfaces, and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) of the fault gouges. The Yeongdeok Fault, which shows a total extension of 40 km on the digital elevation map, cuts the Triassic Yeongdeok Granite and the Cretaceous sedimentary and volcanic rocks with about 8.1 km of dextral strike-slip offset. The NNW- or N-S-striking Yeongdeok Fault runs as a single fault north of Hwacheon-ri, Yeongdeok-eup, but south of Hwacheon-ri it branches into two faults. The western one of these two faults shows a zigzag-shaped extension consisting of a series of NNE- to NE- and NNW-striking segments, while the eastern one is extended south-southeastward and then merged with the Yangsan Fault in Gangu-myeon, Yeongdeok-gun. The Yeongdeok Fault dips eastward with an angle of > $65^{\circ}$ at most outcrops and shows its fault cores and damage zones of 2~15 m and of up to 180 m wide, respectively. The fault cores derived from several different wall rocks, such as granites and sedimentary and volcanic rocks, show different deformation patterns. The fault cores derived from granites consist mainly of fault breccias with gouge zones less than 10 cm thick, in which shear deformation is concentrated. While the fault cores derived from sedimentary rocks consist of gouges and breccia zones, which anastomose and link up each other with greater widths than those derived from granites. The attitudes of sedimentary rocks adjacent to the fault become tilted at a high angle similar to that of the fault. The fault slip data and AMS of the fault gouges indicate two main events of the Yeongdeok Fault, (1) sinistral strike-slip under NW-SE compression and then (2) dextral strike-slip under NE-SW compression, and shows the overwhelming deformation feature recorded by the later dextral strike-slip. Comparing the deformation history and features of the Yeongdeok Fault in the study area with those of the Yangsan Fault of previous studies, it is interpreted that the two faults experienced the same sinistral and dextral strike-slip movements under the late Cretaceous NW-SE compression and the Paleogene NE-SW compression, respectively, despite the slight difference in strike of the two faults.