• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.13 no.5
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• pp.701-712
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• 2008

The purpose of the present study was aimed to identify dish items applicable in developing dish?based food frequency questionnaire (DFFQ) for a hypertension study of Koreans. The 24-hour recall data of 4,401 subjects aged $20{\sim}65$ years from the 2001 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were used for the analysis. Logistic regression model was used to identify the nutrient related with hypertension. Energy, fiber, sodium, calcium, carotene, vitamin B1 and vitamin C were associated with hypertension. Selection the top 30 dish items for these seven nutrients was performed based on their degree of contribution in supplying nutrients in terms of the cumulative percent contribution (cPC), as well as on their degree of explanation for between?person variation, in terms of the cumulative regression coefficient (cMRC). Rice supplied 43% of total energy consumption. Korean cabbage and radish kimchi were two major sources of sodium and it also covered the 27% of between person variation of sodium intake. Soybean paste soup and single item of orange?colored fruits supplied 43% of total vitamin C intake for Koreans and it covered the almost 79% of between person variation among the Korean population. Korean cabbage kimchi was the major source of fiber, calcium, sodium, carotene, and vitamin C for Koreans. In summary, the top 30 selected dish items supplying the 78% to 89% of the 7 nutrients. Those items also covered the 79% to 94% of between person variation of the 7 nutrients consumption. Therefore, the selected 30 dish items in each categories of nutrient could be applicable in developing dish based food frequency questionnaire for hypertension study.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.1 no.4
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• pp.313-320
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• 2007

This study sought to compare intake levels of major dish items and food groups between normal and obese Korean children in order to understand obesity-related eating behaviors. The study was also conducted to apply the information on the differences in major dish items and food groups found in this study to development of a brief food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) for children's obesity-related eating behaviors. Finally, the developed FFQ was evaluated for reliability. A total of 290, 24-hour dietary recall data from 9-11 year-old normal or obese participants in the 2001 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) were reviewed to identity dish items and food groups showing outstanding differences between the normal and obese groups. Based on the level of intake amount between the two groups, a total of 7 items, including ddeokbokggi, spaghetti, ham roast, pork cutlet, dairy products & ices, kimchi, and fruits, were selected to be included in the FFQ. The former 5 items were seen to be consumed more in the obese group, while the latter 2 items were so in the normal group. The questionnaire was formatted into a frequency response section of a seven-category option and reference period of the last 7 days. Test-retest reliability of the developed FFQ was examined by administering it to 153, 9-11 year-old children at a public elementary school in Seoul twice at a month interval. The level of reliability was found to be reasonably high. In conclusion, this study suggests that high consumption of several high-calorie dish items and low consumption of kimchi and fruits may be important eating behaviors in relation to obesity risk among 9-11 year-old children who need nutrition educators' attention. The current study also implies that a simple FFQ can be utilized to reliably assess 9-11 year-old children's diets.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.12 no.6
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• pp.838-853
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• 2007

The aim of this study was to develop various types of a dish frequency questionnaire (DFQ) for estimating the habitual sodium intake and to evaluate the validity of a 125 item dish frequency questionnaire (DFQ 125) with the DFQ 70, DFQ 36 and DFQ 15. For the DFQ 125, one hundred and twenty five dish items were selected based on the information of sodium content of a one serving size, consumption frequency and dish items that contributed most to the variation of sodium intake. Frequency of consumption was determined through nine categories ranging from more than 3 times a day to almost never to indicate how often the specified amount of each food item was consumed during the past 6 months. The sodium intake estimated with DFQ 125 was $5775.0{\pm}3636.3mg$, 12.6% higher than that estimated with a 24 hr urine analysis ($5009.7{\pm}1541.9mg$) and significant correlation was observed between them (r=0.3315, p<0.001). When sodium content in broth leftover was subtracted from the total intake, the actual sodium intakes was decreased to $5309.6{\pm}3076.6mg$, which was 3.2% higher than that with a 24-hr urine analysis. Overall, 56% of subjects in the lowest quintile of sodium intake computed with DFQ 125 were also in the lowest of adjacent quintile while categorization into the opposite quintile were 4.9%. DFQ 70 was developed from DFQ 125 by omitting the food items not frequently consumed, selecting the dish items that showed higher sodium content per one portion size and higher consumption frequency. The sodium intake estimated with DFQ 70 ($5026.6{\pm}3107.1mg$) showed only 0.2% difference from that estimated with a 24-hr urine analysis, significant correlation with it (r=0.3199, p<0.001) and higher proportion of subjects to be classified into the same or adjacent quintile. The sodium intake estimated with DFQ 36 or DFQ 15 was also significancy correlated with that estimated with a 24-hr urine analysis (r=0.3441, p<0.001; r=0.321, p<0.001 respectively) and more. The proportion of subjects was classified into the same or adjacent quintile. However, the actual sodium intake estimated with DFQ 36 or DFQ 15 were $3534.0{\pm}1804.6mg\;and\;2508.0{\pm}1261.5mg$, respectively, 31.3% or 51.3% less than that estimated with a 24-hr urine analysis. It seems the DFQ 125 with subtraction of sodium content in broth leftover or DFQ 70 can be used quantitatively to estimate sodium intake of adults. DFQ 36 or DFQ 15 can be used as a screening tool or to assess the changes of sodium intake after nutrition education.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.43 no.6
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• pp.638-652
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• 2010

A valid food or dish frequency questionnaire needs to be developed in Korea for accurate dietary assessment because the dietary practices of Koreans are very different from those of other countries. This study was conducted to evaluate the accuracy of the newly developed, semi-quantitative, dish-based frequency questionnaire (Semi-DFQ) with 12-day dietary records (12-DRs) as a gold standard. The study subjects were 115 men and 173 women aged 30-65 years old. We calibrated the frequency, portion size and daily intake of 112 dish items reported in Semi-DFQ with those in 12-DRs by Spearman rank correlation coefficients (SCCs). The consumption frequency and portion size reported in Semi-DFQ were higher than those in 12-DRs. The SCCs for the consumption frequency of various dishes ranged from -0.07 (fried seaweed) to 0.70 (instant coffee), the portion size ranged from -0.09 (cold seaweed soup) to 0.68 (soju), and the daily intake ranged from -0.07 (fried seaweed) to 0.71 (soju). The SCCs were higher for dishes consumed daily, such as steamed rice,milk, coffee and alcohol, than those of foods eaten rarely. The overall agreements between the Semi-DFQ and 12-DRs were low for categories of consumption frequency and portion size, even though some dishes showed high SCCs. The SCCs of the two methods in consumption frequency and amount were higher among the women and younger subject. The results revealed the limitation of the Semi-DFQ for evaluating the status of usual individual intake. Therefore, the Semi-DFQ can be used in addition as dietary records and 24-hour recall depending on the research aims.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.2 no.4
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• pp.578-592
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• 1997

The use of semiquantitative food frequency questionnaires to estimate dietary intake has become widespread in nutritional epidemiologic studies. It had been suggested that knowledge about a person's usual portion size of each meal in addition to consumption frequency will improve the accuracy of this method. This study was performed to investigate the dietary intake status(nutrient, food, and dish intake) and one portion size of commonly consumed food and dishes to develop a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire that will be used to expore the relationship between the incidence of cardiovascular disease and diet in Korean women after menopause. Intake of food or dish in 123 elderly women were measured by 3-day food records in March to May, 1996. The results obtained in this study were summarized as follow : 1) Calcium, vitamin A, and vitamin E intakes were less adequate than Recommended dietary allowances(RDA). 2) The subjects who consumed more than 20% of the energy from fat were 35% and the subjects consumed dietary cholesterol more than 300mg were 18$\%$. 3) The most frequently consumed foods or dishes by the subjects were Korean cabbage kimchi〉cooked rice, well-milled〉laver〉apple〉strawberry〉mixed rice〉soybean soup. 4) The major dish groups which contributed to most daily nutrient intakes were cooked rice, Korean cabbage kimchi, soybean soup because of large amount and high frequency of intake although they do not contain large amount of most nutrients. 5) One portion size of commomly consumed foods and dishes in elderly women was different from one portion size suggested in the Korean nutrition society. This study provides information for the design of data-based semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. for Korean elderly women. In addition, they may be useful to health care planners or nutrition educators. (Korean J Community Nutrition 2(4) : 578-592, 1997)

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.10 no.4
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• pp.433-441
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• 2016

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to develop a dish-based semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) for Korean adolescents and evaluate its reproducibility and validity. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Based on 24-hour dietary recall data from the 4th Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES), we developed a FFQ with 71 items. From a quota sample of 160 adolescents recruited using gender and age group as stratification variables, 153 participated in the complete data collection process. The FFQ was administered to each subject twice, at an interval of 3-4 weeks, to evaluate the test-retest reliability. The validity of the FFQ was assessed relative to 8-day food record data. RESULTS: The study findings demonstrated the FFQ's satisfactory reproducibility. Spearman correlation coefficients ranged from 0.64(for ${\beta}-carotene$) to 0.81(for protein). From cross-classification analyses, the proportion of subjects in the same intake quartile was highest for protein (65.4%) and lowest for vitamin A(47.1%). With regard to validity analysis, Spearman correlation coefficients ranged from 0.27(for vitamin A and fiber) to 0.90 (for energy). The proportions of subjects in the opposite categories between the first FFQ and the 8-day food record data were generally low within the range from 0.74% (for energy and carbohydrate) to 13.2% (for ${\beta}-carotene$). CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, the dish-based semiquantitative FFQ developed in this study can be useful for grouping Korean adolescents according to major macro- and micronutrient intakes with reasonable reproducibility and validity.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.14 no.4
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• pp.374-383
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• 2020

BACKGROUNDS/OBJECTIVES: To describe the data-based development of a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) for dietary evaluation of Korean preschool children. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Development of the FFQ was based on the data from 2,766 preschool children aged 1-5 years, who had completed 24-hour dietary recalls in the 2009-2013 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. We selected the food list based on the results of nutritional contribution and between-person variability for energy and 13 nutrients. We selected 88 foods with over 80% of total contribution to each nutrient and with over 80% of accumulated r² for each nutrient. A dish containing any of the 88 foods in the recipe was listed, and a total of 903 dishes were extracted. Among the 903 dishes, we selected 438 dishes contributing more than 1% of total consumption. RESULTS: FFQ included 116 dish items combined from 438 dishes based on nutrient profile and recipe. Quantities of dietary intake were assessed by nine categories of frequency and portion size option. In addition, when comparing the food portions of children with the reference portion size, subjects would be asked to select one of three response categories (less, similar, and more) and then to record the amount as a percentage for the reference portion. Percentages of coverage for energy, protein, fat, and carbohydrate were 89.2%, 88.4%, 88.2%, and 89.4%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The dietary intake of Korean preschool children can be assessed by this new data-based FFQ. In addition, the new instrument can be used to identify nutritional needs of target groups for planning nutrition education and strategies to improve diet. Further studies are warranted to evaluate the performance of the instrument.

• Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention
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• v.13 no.2
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• pp.545-552
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• 2012

This study evaluated the validity and reliability of applying a newly developed dish-based, semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) for Korean diet and cancer research. The subjects in the present study were 288 Korean adults over 30 years of age who had completed two FFQs and four 3-day diet records (DRs) from May 2008 to February 2009. Student's t-tests, Chi-square tests, and Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were used to estimate and compare intakes from different dietary assessment tools. Agreement in quintiles was calculated to validate agreement between the results of the second FFQ (FFQ-2) conducted in February 2009 and the DRs. Median Spearman's correlation coefficients between the intake of nutrients and foods assessed by the FFQ-1 and FFQ-2 were 0.59 and 0.57, respectively, and the coefficients between the intake of nutrients and foods assessed by the FFQ-2 and the DRs were 0.31 and 0.29, respectively. The quintile classifications of same or adjacent quintile for intake of nutrients and foods were 64% and 65%, respectively. Misclassification into opposite quintiles occurred in less than 5% for all dietary factors. Thus this newly-developed, Korean dish-based FFQ demonstrated moderate correspondence with the four 3-day DRs. Its reliability and validity are comparable to those reported in other studies.

• The Korean Journal of Community Living Science
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• v.26 no.1
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• pp.167-176
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• 2015

This study compares salt-related dietary patterns according to sodium intake. A survey was conducted with 257 college students(130 male and 127 female students) in the Busan area. Dish Frequency Questionnaire 70(DFQ 70) was used to quantitatively estimate sodium intake. A short dish frequency questionnaire(DFQ 15) was used to screen subjects with high or low- salt intake. The sodium intake of male students based on DFQ 70 was significantly higher than that of female students(p<0.05). Sodium intake has significant negative effects on systolic and diastolic blood pressure(p<0.05). In the high-salt intake(HS) group, classified by DFQ 15, the number of male students was significantly higher than that of female students(p<0.01). The systolic blood pressure of the HS group was significantly higher than that of the low-salt intake(LS) group(p<0.05). Salt-related dietary behavior score and eating habit score for the HS group were significantly higher than those for the LS group(p<0.01). The sodium intake of the HS group based on DFQ 70 was significantly higher than that of the LS group(p<0.01). In these results, college students in Busan area showed high blood pressure and high sodium intake compared to Korean DRIs. The results indicate a need for various education programs to help college students practice a low-sodium diet.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.17 no.4
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• pp.747-761
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• 2023

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: In Korea, studies of diet in elementary school children are hindered by the need for a comprehensive dietary assessment tool. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) for Korean elementary school children. SUBJECTS/METHODS: The 24-h recall data for 1,624 subjects aged 6-11 yrs from the seventh Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were used to extract the items included in the questionnaire. The FFQ items were developed by selecting major dishes based on the results of nutritional contribution and between-person variability for energy and 14 nutrients (carbohydrate, protein, fat, crude fiber, calcium, phosphorous, iron, sodium, potassium, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin C). We selected the major dishes with over 90% of the total contribution to each nutrient and with over 90% of the accumulated R² for each nutrient. Among the 452 dishes, we selected 248 dishes contributing more than 1% of the total consumption. RESULTS: Finally, the FFQ included 107 items combined from 248 dishes based on nutrient profile and recipe. The FFQ items accounted for an average of 88.6% of the energy, 14 nutrient intakes, and 91.4% of the between-person variability. Quantities of dietary intake were assessed by 9 categories of frequency and 3 categories of portion size. Percentages of coverage for energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate, and calcium were 90.2%, 87.8%, 89.9%, 90.8%, and 88.7%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: We developed a dish-based, semi-quantitative FFQ comprising 107 items for Korean elementary school children aged 6 to 11. Further studies are needed to evaluate the reproducibility and validity of this FFQ for elementary school children.