• 제목/요약/키워드: Tokyo Convention

검색결과 14건 처리시간 0.018초

수소경제사회구현을 위한 에너지기술개발전략 (Strategy of Energy Technology Development for Establishing the Hydrogen Economy)

  • 이성곤;겐토 모기;김종욱;신성철
    • 한국수소및신에너지학회논문집
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    • 제18권2호
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    • pp.207-215
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    • 2007
  • The rapid changes of energy environment such as high oil price, united nations framework convention on climate change, and the hydrogen economy have been happening to provide national energy security in the 21st century, we need to build strategic approach for coping with energy environment. From a long-term viewpoint of energy technology development, it's time to develop energy technology with selection and specification. In this study, we build energy technology roadmap for establishing the hydrogen economy with a long-term strategy. We analyze economic spin-offs and commercial potential for establishing energy technology roadmap of energy technology development for establishing the hydrogen economy.

우리나라의 항만국통제 제도의 개선에 관한 연구 (A Study on the Improvement of Port State Control in Korea)

  • 박병곤;정재용;박진수
    • 한국항해학회지
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    • 제23권4호
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    • pp.43-61
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    • 1999
  • To ensure ship's safety and preserve the marine environment from ship, IMO(International Maritime Organization) has been making much efforts. Nevertheless there are still many possibilities threatening ship's safety and the marine environment. Many vessels navigate at sea in lack of standard required by the International Convention relevant to ship's safety and the protection of marine environment. Even though the administration is responsible for perfect and continuous control for safety of ship, it cannot has jurisdiction over ships hoist its flag reasonably at all times. So the Port State has strengthened the Port State Control(PSC) activity as one step of eliminating sub-standard vessels. In the light of the fact that mentioned above, this study deals with PSC activity in Korea and port of Pusan. Total 582 ships, inspected in port of Pusan from 1st January 1998 to 30th September 1999, were analyzed in various aspect and extracted results as follows : \circled1 The inspection rate in Korea was much lower than the other states taking part in Tokyo MOU, \circled2 For flag state, the ships belong to flag of convenience(FOC) had much more deficiencies than non-convenience flag ships, \circled3 For ship type, 39 number of general dry cargo ship were detained at Pusan with serious deficiencies, \circled4 For deficiency item, the items such as life saving appliances, safety in general, navigation, load lines and fire-fighting appliances were occupied over 71.7% of total number of deficiencies, \circled5 In Asia-Pacific region, Korea was one of flags with detention percentages exceeding 3-year(1996~1998) rolling average detention percentage. Average detention rate of Korean vessels was 6.73% which was over 0.24% of average detention rate(6.49%) in Asia-Pacific region. These results may reflect to improve the performance of PSC inspection for foreign vessels and are useful for preparing PSC inspection for ocean-going ships registered in Korea.

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공해의 상공비행에 관한 국제법 (International Law on the Flight over the High Seas)

  • 김한택
    • 항공우주정책ㆍ법학회지
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    • 제26권1호
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    • pp.3-30
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    • 2011
  • 1982년 UN해양법협약 제86조에 의하면 공해는 영해와 내수는 물론이고 접속수역, 배타적 경제수역이 아닌 수역을 의미하므로 기존의 공해였던 부분이 상당히 연안국관할권 하에 놓이게 되었다. 이와 같은 공해의 상공비행과 관련된 국제법에 관한 사항으로 다음과 같은 결론을 얻을 수 있다. 첫째, 항공기의 국적에 관하여 1944년 시카고협약 제17조에 의하면 항공기는 등록한 국가의 국적을 갖는다. 여기서 항공법이 해양법과 구별되는 측면이 있는데, 선박에는 통용되는 '편의치적'(便宜置籍 또는 편의기국, flags of convenience)이 항공기에는 적용되지 않기 때문에 항공기에 대한 실질적 소유와 효과적 통제가 유지된다. 둘째, UN해양법협약 제95조는 공해상 군함의 면제권에 대하여 설명하고 있는데, 공해에 있는 군함은 기국외의 어떠한 국가의 관할권으로부터도 완전히 면제된다고 규정하고 있다. 따라서 군용항공기(또는 군용기)의 경우도 이에 준하는 면책권을 향유한다고 해석할 수 있다. 셋째, UN해양법협약은 해적에 관한 정의를 제101조에 명시하고 있는데, 해적행위가 공해상의 선박에 대하여 행해 질 경우, 공해상의 선박뿐만 아니라 항공기에 의해서도 행해질 수 있음을 분명히 하고 있다. 넷째, UN해양법협약 제111조는 추적권에 관하여 상세하게 규정하고 있는데 이러한 추적권은 군함이나 군용항공기 또는 기타 정부역무에 종사함이 명백히 표시되고 식별되며 이에 대한 권한이 부여된 선박이나 항공기에 의해서만 행사되어질수 있음을 명시하여 선박 뿐 아니라 항공기에 의해서 추적이 행사될 수 있음을 규정하고 있다. 다섯째, UN해양법협약 제110조는 임검권(right of approach)에 관하여 설명하고 있는데, 외국선박을 공해에서 만난 군함은 일정 혐의를 가지고 있다는 합리적 근거가 있는 한 그 선박을 임검하는 것은 정당화되는데, 이러한 규정은 군용항공기에도 준용되고, 이러한 규정은 또한 정부 업무에 사용 중인 것으로 명백히 표시되어 식별이 가능하며 정당하게 권한이 부여된 그 밖의 모든 선박이나 항공기에도 적용된다. 여섯째, 1982년 UN해양법협약은 해양오염과 항공기의 관계를 규정하고 있는데, 제212조는 대기에 의한 또는 대기를 통한 오염을 규정하고, 제222조는 대기에 의한 또는 대기를 통한 오염관련 법령집행을 규정하고 있고, UN해양법협약은 제1항에서 '투기'(dumping)에 의한 오염을 규정하고 있는데 각 조항은 자국기를 게양하고 있는 선박 또는 자국에 등록된 선박뿐만 아니라 항공기에도 적용되는 법령을 채택한다고 규정하고 있다. 일곱 번째, 공해상공에서 발생한 범죄에 관하여 국제민간항공기구(ICAO)의 주관하에 1963년 도쿄에서 개최된 회의에서 이러한 문제를 종합적으로 해결한 협약인 도쿄협약이 제정되었다. 또한 ICAO의 주관 하에 하이재킹문제를 해결하기 위하여 1970년 12월 16일 헤이그협약이 체결되었으며, 사보타지문제를 해결하기 위하여 ICAO에 의해서 1971년 9월 23일 몬트리올협약이 체결되었다. 도쿄협약, 헤이그협약, 몬트리올협약 모두 공해상에서 발생한 범죄에 대하여 항공기의 기국관할권(flag State jurisdiction)을 인정하고 있다. 여덟 번째, 공해상에서 연안국의 영토에 진입하지 않고 실시하는 정찰행위는 국제법 위반행위가 아니다. 이는 관련항공기의 공해상 정찰행위는 연안국 영토를 침범하지 않고 행해지는 것으로 공해상공비행의 자유가 우선적으로 적용되기 때문이다. 아홉 번째, 연안국에 의한 공해상 설치된 '방공식별구역'(또는 방공확인구역, Air Defence Identification Zone: ADIZ)이 국제법상 합법적인가 하는 문제가 있는데, 이에 관하여 합의된 결론은 없고, 실제로 실행국가의 국내법에 따라 규율되고 있다. 마지막으로 북극해는 얼어있는 바다가 대부분이므로 북극해의 상공비행은 공해의 상공비행과 유사하다. 20세기후반부터 아시아, 북아메리카, 유럽을 잇는 항공로가 북극을 경유하도록 고안되었는데, 매우 추운 지방임에도 불구하고 지금까지 북극 항공노선에서 사고가 발생한 경우는 없다. 그러나 최근 기후온난화로 얼음이 녹기시작하면서 북극을 이용한 선박의 해로가 개발되면서 북극에 대한 자원개방을 둘러싼 연안국가들의 관할권주장이 열기를 띠고 있으므로 배타적 경제수역(EEZ)과 같은 연안국들의 해역선포는 북극해 비행에 지대한 영향을 미칠 수 있을 것이다.

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최근국제항공보안대책(最近國際航空保安対策)의 제간제(諸間題) -특히 법적측면(法的測面)을 중심(中心)으로- (Some New Problems of International Aviation Security- Considerations Forcused on its Legal Aspects)

  • 최완식
    • 항공우주정책ㆍ법학회지
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    • 제5권
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    • pp.53-75
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    • 1993
  • This article is concerned with the comment on "Some New Problems of International Aviation Security-Considerations Forcused on its Legal Aspects". Ever since 1970, in addition to the problem of failure to accept the Tokyo, Hague and Montreal Conventions, there has been also the problem of parties to them, failing to comply with their obligations under the respective treaties, in the form especially of nominal penalties or the lack of any effort to prosecute after blank refusals to extradite. There have also been cases of prolonged detention of aircraft, passengers and hostages. In this regard, all three conventions contain identical clauses which submit disputes between two or more contracting States concerning the interpretation or application of the respective conventions to arbitration or failing agreement on the organization of the arbitration, to the International Court of Justice. To the extent to which contracting States have not contracted out of this undertaking, as I fear they are expressly allowed to do, this promision can be used by contracting States to ensure compliance. But to date, this avenue does not appear to have been used. From this point of view, it may be worth mentioning that there appears to be an alarming trend towards the view that the defeat of terrorism is such an overriding imperative that all means of doing so become, in international law, automatically lawful. In addition, in as far as aviation security is concerned, as in fact it has long been suggested, what is required is the "application of the strictest security measures by all concerned."In this regard, mention should be made of Annex 17 to the Chicago Convention on Security-Safeguarding International Civil Aviation against Acts of Unlawful Intereference. ICAO has, moreover, compiled, for restricted distribution, a Security Manual for Safeguarding Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference, which is highly useful. In this regard, it may well be argued that, unless States members of ICAO notify the ICAO Council of their inability to comply with opecific standards in Annex 17 or any of the related Annexes in accordance with Article 38 of the 1944 Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, their failure to do so can involve State responsibility and, if damage were to insure, their liability. The same applies to breaches of any other treaty obligation. I hope to demonstrate that although modes of international violence may change, their underlying characteristics remain broadly similar, necessitating not simply the adoption of an adequate body of domestic legislation, firm in its content and fairly administered, but also an international network of communication, of cooperation and of coordination of policies. Afurther legal instrument is now being developed by the Legal Committee of ICAO with respect to unlawful acts at International airports. These instruments, however, are not very effective, because of the absence of universal acceptance and the deficiency I have already pointed out. Therefore, States, airports and international airlines have to concentrate on prevention. If the development of policies is important at the international level, it is equally important in the domestic setting. For example, the recent experiences of France have prompted many changes in the State's legislation and in its policies towards terrorism, with higher penalties for terrorist offences and incentives which encourage accused terrorists to pass informations to the authorities. And our government has to tighten furthermore security measures. Particularly, in the case an unarmed hijacker who boards having no instrument in his possession with which to promote the hoax, a plaintiff-passenger would be hard-pressed to show that the airline was negligent in screening the hijacker prior to boarding. In light of the airline's duty to exercise a high degree of care to provide for the safety of all the passengers on board, an acquiescence to a hijacker's demands on the part of the air carrier could constitute a breach of duty only when it is clearly shown that the carrier's employees knew or plainly should have known that the hijacker was unarmed. The general opinion is that the legal oystem could be sufficient, provided that the political will is there to use and apply it effectively. All agreed that the main responsibility for security has to be borne by the governments. A state that supports aviation terrorism is responsible for violation of International Aviation Law. Generally speaking, terrorism is a violation of international law. It violates the sovereign rights of states, and the human rights of the individuals. We have to contribute more to the creation of a general consensus amongst all states about the need to combat the threat of aviation terrorism. I think that aviation terrorism as becoming an ever more serious issue, has to be solved by internationally agreed and closely co - ordinated measures.

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