• The Sea:JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF OCEANOGRAPHY
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• v.10 no.1
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• pp.1-7
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• 2005

Tidal flats have been regarded to carry out transformation and removal of land-derived organic matter, and this purifying capability of organic matter by tidal flats is one of very important reasons for their conservation. However, integral biogeochemical studies on production and decomposition of organic matter by benthic microbes in tidal flats have been absent in Korea, although the information is indispensable to quantification of the purifying capability. Our major goals in this multidisciplinary research were to understand major biogeochemical processes and rates mediated by diverse groups of microbes dominating material cycles in the tidal flats, and to assess the contribution of benthic microbes to removal of organic matter and nutrients in the tidal flats. Our study sites were Ganghwa and Incheon north-port tidal flats that had been regarded as naturally well reserved and organically polluted, respectively. Our research group measured over 3 years primary production, biomass and community structure of primary producers, abundance and production of bacteria, enzyme activities, distribution of protozoa and protozoan grazing rates, rates of denitrification and sulfate reduction, early sediment diagenesis, primary production and respiration based on oxygen microelectrode. We analyzed major features of each biogeochemical process and their interactions. The results are compiled in the following articles in this special issue: An (2005), Hwang and Cho (2005), Mok et at. (2005), Na and Lee (2005), Yang et at. (2005), and Yoo and Choi (2005).

• Journal of the Korean Society of Hazard Mitigation
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• v.1 no.1 s.1
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• pp.139-155
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• 2001

We investigate the vertical velocity models beneath the newly installed broadband seismic network of KMA (Korea Meteorological Administration) by using receiver function inversion technique. The seismic phases are primarily P-to-S conversions and reverberations generated at the two highest impedance interfaces like the Moho (crust-mantle boundary) and the sediment-basement contact. We obtained the teleseismic P-wave receiver functions, which were derived from teleseismic records of Seoul (SEO), Inchon (INCN), Tejeon (TEJ) , Sosan (SOS/SES), Kangnung (KAN), Ulchin (ULC/ULJ), Taegu (TAG), Pusan (PUS), and Ullung-do (ULL) stations. For Kwangju (KWA/KWJ) and Chunchon (CHU) stations, the Moho conversion Ps arrivals and waveforms of radial receiver functions are azimuthally inconsistent and unclear. From the receiver function inversion result, we found that crustal thickness is 29 km at INCN, SEO, and SOS (SES) stations, 28 km at KAN station in the Kyonggi Massif, 32 km at TEJ station in Okchon Folded Belt, 34 km at TAG, 33 km at PUS station in the Kyongsang Basin, 32 km at KWJ station (readjusted station by prior KWA station) included in the Youngdong-Kwangju Depression Zone, 28 km at ULC station in the eastern margin of the Ryongnam Massif, and 17 km at ULL station in the Ullung Island of the East Sea, respectively. The Moho configuration of INCN, SOS, KWJ, and KAN stations show a laminated smooth transition zone with a 3-5 km thick. The upper crusts(${\sim}5km$) of KAN, ULC, and PUS stations show complex structures with a high velocity. The unusually thick crusts are found at the TAG and PUS stations in the Kyongsang Basin compared to the thin (29-32 km) crust of the western part (INCN, SEO, SOS, TEJ, and KWA stations) The crustal thickness beneath Ullung Island (ULL station) shows the suboceanic crust with about 17 km thickness and complex with a high velocity layer of the upper crust, and the amplitudes of Incoming Ps waves from the western direction are relatively large compared to those from othor directions.

• Journal of the Korean Society for Marine Environment & Energy
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• v.18 no.2
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• pp.94-101
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• 2015

To mitigate the greenhouse gas emission, many carbon capture and storage projects are underway all over the world. In Korea, many studies focus on the storage of $CO_2$ in the offshore sediment. Assurance of safety is one of the most important issues in the geological storage of $CO_2$. Especially, the assessment of possibility of leakage and amount of leaked $CO_2$ is very crucial to analyze the safety of marine geological storage of $CO_2$. In this study, the leakage of injected $CO_2$ through fault was numerically studied. TOUGH2-MP ECO2N was used to simulate the subsurface behavior of injected $CO_2$. The storage site was 150 m thick saline aquifer located 825 m under the continental shelf. It was assumed that $CO_2$ leak was happened through the fault located 1,000 m away from the injection well. The injected $CO_2$ could migrate through the aquifer by both pressure difference driven by injection and buoyancy force. The enough pressure differences made it possible the $CO_2$ to migrate to the bottom of the fault. The $CO_2$ could be leaked to seabed through the fault due to the buoyancy force. Prior to leakage of the injected $CO_2$, the formation water leaked to seabed. When $CO_2$ reached the seabed, leakage of formation water stopped but the same amount of sea water starts to flow into the underground as the amount of leaked $CO_2$. To analyze the effect of injection rate on the leakage behavior, the injection rate of $CO_2$ was varied as 0.5, 0.75, and $1MtCO_2/year$. The starting times of leakage at 1, 0.75 and $0.5MtCO_2/year$ injection rates are 11.3, 15.6 and 23.2 years after the injection, respectively. The leakage of $CO_2$ to the seabed continued for a period time after the end of $CO_2$ injection. The ratios of total leaked $CO_2$ to total injected $CO_2$ at 1, 0.75 and $0.5MtCO_2/year$ injection rates are 19.5%, 11.5% and 2.8%, respectively.

• The Sea:JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF OCEANOGRAPHY
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• v.7 no.1
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• pp.20-31
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• 2002

This study was carried out to investigate the composition and the distribution of the benthic polychaetous communities in Deugryang Bay, semi-enclosed bays, on the southern coast of Korea and to deduce temporal changes in community with the comparison of the past studies. In Deugryang Bay, benthic polychaetous community structure was investigated on the base of the samples from 98 stations in 1996 and 1997. The main facies of surface sediment was clayey silt. The overall benthic macrofaunal density was 871 ind./m$^{2}$. The density was highest in the middle part of the bay because Musculus senhousia (Bivalvia) and cumaceans (Crustacea) had their highest densities in some stations. Benthic polychaetes were comprised of 100 species with a mean density of 138 ind./m$^{2}$. Their abundances were higher in the inner bay, in the middle bay, and in the mouth of bay, but poor community structures were established in the whole bay. The dominant species over 1.0 percentage were composed of the total 21 species, and they occupied 78.3% of the total abundance of the benthic polychaetes. The most dominant species was Lumbrineris longifolia (9.3%), followed by Eteone longa (7.3%), Heteromastus filifomis (7.1%), Sternaspis scutata (6.1%). From the cluster analysis, the study area could be divided into three station groups. Station group AI was located in the inner bay and in the shallow coastal region, and its most dominant species was Heteromastus filiformis. At the station group AII in the mouth of bay and in some channel region, its most dominant species were Lumbrineris longifolia and Eteone longa. And at the station group B located in middle part of the bay, the most dominant specis was Sternaspis scutata. In comparison with previous studies, the benthic polychaetous community experienced great change in the view of species number, density and dominant species. The dominant species were Sternaspis scutata and Eteone longa, but their densities declined greatly. Instead of these species, Lumbrineris longifolia and Heteromastus filiformis, known as the potential organic enrichment indicator species, appeared to the new dominant species even if their low densities. These facts mean that Deugryang Bay was maintained yet as little organic enriched area compared to other bays on the coast of Korea, but needed some caution of marine environmental management.

• The Sea:JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF OCEANOGRAPHY
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• v.4 no.1
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• pp.71-79
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• 1999

As part of an on-going project investigating flux of materials in the Keum River Estuary, we have monitored seasonal variations of nutrients, suspended particulate matter (SPM), chlorophyll, and salinity since 1997. Meteorological data and freshwater discharge from the Keum River Dike were also used, Our goal was to answers for (1) what is the main factor for the seasonal fluctuation of nutrients in the Keum River Estuary? and (2) are there any differences in nutrient distributions before and after the Keum River Dike construction? Nitrate concentrations in the Keum River water were kept constant through the year. Whereas other nutrients varied with evident seasonality: high phosphate and ammonium concentrations during the dry season and enhanced silicate contents during the rainy season. SPM was found similar trend with silicate. During the rainy season, the freshwater discharged from the Keum River Dike seemed to dilute the phosphate and ammonium, but to elevate SPM concentration in the Keum Estuary. In addition, the corresponding variations of SPM contents in the estuarine water affected the seasonal fluctuations of nutrients in the Estuary. The most important source of the nutrients in the estuarine water is the fluvial water. Therefore, the distribution patterns of nutrients in the Estuary are conservative against salinity. Nitrate, nitrite and silicate are conservative through the year. The distribution of phosphate and ammonium on the other hand, display two distinct seasonal patterns: conservative behavior during the dry season and some additive processes during the rainy days. Mass destruction of freshwater phytoplankton in the riverine water is believed to be a major additive source of phosphate in the upper Estuary. Desorption processes of phosphate and ammonium from SPM and organic matter probably contribute extra source of addition. Benthic flux of phosphate and ammonium from the sediment into overlying estuarine water can not be excluded as another source. After the Keum River Dike construction, the concentrations of SPM decreased markedly and their role in controlling of nutrient concentrations in the Estuary has probably diminished. We found low salinity (5~15 psu) within 1 km away from the Dike during the dry season. Therefore we conclude that the only limited area of inner estuary function as a real estuary and the rest part rather be like a bay during the dry season. However, during the rainy season, the entire estuary as the mixing place of freshwater and seawater. Compared to the environmental conditions of the Estuary before the Dike construction, tidal current velocity and turbidity are decreased, but nutrient concentrations and chance of massive algal bloom such as red tide outbreak markedly increased.

• Korean Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
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• v.13 no.2
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• pp.45-56
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• 1980

Farming density of oyster cultured in Hansan-Geoje Bay was studied to obtain the optimal farming density based on the biosedimentation analysis and the annual yield data from 1970 to 1979. Farming density of oyster extrapolated by means of pollution grade of sediment is significantly correlated to COD and phaeophytin content of the bottom mud of the bay. Pollution grade is linearly related to the number of oyster clusters suspended in the unit area. Optimal farming density was $0.12\;string/m^2$ in case of raft culture, and it was $0.12\;string/m^2$ in case of long-line culture. Farming density was well expressed by the number of strings per raft and the area covered by a raft. As strings per raft increased from 350 to 558, total yield from a raft increased and when occupied sea area per raft ranged from $1.000\;m^2\;to\;6,000\;m^2$, the yield per raft linearly increased as the area increased. This analysis suggests that the optimal density be 0.11 string per unit area $(m^2)$. As increasing the number of strings per $m^2$ the yield per string decreases, and this is well dipicted by a linear function. At this time the yield per unit area increases when the number of string increases up to the density of $0.13\;strings/m^2$. From the point of these three comprehensive analyses the optimal density was $0.11\~0.13\;string/m^2$ in case of raft culture and $0.25\;strings/m^2$ in case of long-line culture in Hansan-Geoje Bay. The maximum expected yield of oyster in Hansan-Geoje Bay is approximately 5,600 tons when maintained the string density at $0.11\~0.13\;string/m^2$.

• Geophysics and Geophysical Exploration
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• v.13 no.4
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• pp.357-363
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• 2010

In this study, we investigated the geologic structure of the basement and overlying sediments of the construction site of the dinosaur egg fossil museum in Hwasung, Gyeonggi Province through refraction seismology, drilling, and downward seismic velocity measurements in the drill holes. The construction site ($350{\times}750\;m^2$) is located in the reclaimed area south of Sihwa Lake, Gojeong-ri. About 6,950 m of seismic refraction data consisting of 11 lines were acquired using a sledge hammer source. Drilling to the basement was performed at five sites. Sediment samples from drilling were analysed for grain-size distribution and age dating. At two drill holes, seismic velocity was measured with depth using a hammer as a seismic source. The geological structure of the study area consists of, from top to bottom, a tidal flat layer (5 ~ 12 m thick), a weathered soil layer (2 ~ 8 m thick), and the basement. The basement is interpreted as Cretaceous sedimentary rocks that tend to be shallow eastward. The volume of the tidal flat sediments and weathered soil in the study area is estimated as $1.4{\times}10^6\;m^3$, weighing $3.5{\times}10^6$ tons. The rate of sea level rise since 8,000 yrs BP is estimated to be 0.1 ~ 0.15 cm/yr.

• The Sea:JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF OCEANOGRAPHY
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• v.18 no.4
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• pp.214-226
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• 2013

To understand the changing patterns in phytoplankton communities, we conducted 12 surveys along the Nakdong River, its estuary, and adjacent coastal areas between January 2011 and October 2012 (during the period of barrage construction and sediment dredging). Monthly precipitation ranged from 0 to 502 mm during the survey period, and salinity ranged between 0.1 psu and 0.3 psu in the Nakdong River, regardless of the depth, indicating no seawater influence, while salinity showed large seasonal fluctuations in the estuarine and coastal station, ranging from 0.1 psu to 34.8 psu. A total of 402 phytoplankton species were identified, 178 species from the river and 331 species from the estuary and coastal areas. Phytoplankton standing crop increased in 2012 compared to that in 2011, and was found to be highest in the river, followed by the estuary and coastal areas. Among the top 20 species in frequency of occurrence and dominance, Stephanodiscus spp., Aulacoseira granulata, and Aulacoseira granulata var. angustissima and Pseudo-nitzschia spp. were important species along the river-estuary-coastal areas. Diatoms were the major taxonomic group inhabiting the Nakdong river-estuary-coastal areas. A comparison of seasonal dominant phytoplankton species revealed a slight decrease over the years, from 13 species in 2011 to 10 species in 2012. However, no significant difference was found in the diversity of phytoplankton species between the two survey years, although lightly greater diversity was observed in the coastal areas than in the river and estuary. Cluster analysis with community composition data revealed that the community structure varied significantly in 2011 depending on the time of survey, while in 2012, it hardly showed any variation and was simpler. An increase in the phytoplankton standing crop, fewer dominant species, and simpler community structure in 2012 compared to those in 2011 are probably due to the rapid environmental changes along the Nakdong River. To investigate these ecological relationships, it is necessary to conduct further studies focusing on integrated analyses of biocenosis, including phytoplankton with respect to the changes in nutrient distribution, variation of freshwater discharge, and effect area of freshwater in the Nakdong estuary and adjacent coastal areas.

• The Sea:JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF OCEANOGRAPHY
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• v.22 no.3
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• pp.88-102
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• 2017

Long-term changes in bathymetry and grain size of surface sediments were investigated for understanding depositional sedimentary environments in the channelized Yeongsan River Estuary, Korea. The results revealed that an average depth of the estuary had decreased up to 2.1 m from 1982 to 2006, while it had increased to 0.3 m from 2006 to 2012. The rapid decrease of the water depth from 1982 to 2006 was due to the vast deposition of mud caused by the change of water course and flow velocity after the estuary was dammed. Meanwhile the increase of the water depth from 2006 to 2012 may be associated with multiple erosional processes, including a dredging at the southern part of the estuary and other erosions from the dike sluice expansion work. Considering the water-depth change and tidal-level variation in the study area, an depositional rate in the estuary is estimated to be 8~9 cm/yr for the last 2 decades (1982~2006). The sediments of Yeongsan River Estuary are largely composed of silt-clay mixtures: overall, silt is distributed mainly in the shallow area of the estuary edge, while clay is confined to the deep area of the estuary center. Mean grain size of the sediments is 6.0 Ø on average in 1997, 7.8 Ø on average in 2005 and 7.7 Ø on average in 2012, respectively, suggesting that the sediments became finer due to the increase of silt and clay contents in 1997~2005. Furthermore, several lines of evidences, including the comparison between the amounts of the sediment influx discharged from the Yeongsan River and the sediments in the estuary, and the changes in distribution pattern of silt and clay contents implying that they moved from offshore to estuary dike, indicate that the mud sediments are originated mainly from the offshore, not from the river.

• Economic and Environmental Geology
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• v.52 no.3
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• pp.223-230
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• 2019

The calcination of oyster shells have been studied as the possible substitute for the limestone used as an absorbent of $SO_2$ gas. However, since pure shells can not be used in calcination process, some impurities are contained and the changes in the characteristics of the calcination products are expected. In this study, the surface characteristics of the calcination products are investigated by mineralogical analysis according to the contents of NaCl, which can be derived from sea water, and sediments on the surface of the shell as impurities. The marine sediments on the shells were mainly composed of quartz, albite, calcite, small amounts of amphibole and clay minerals such as ilite, chlorite and smectite. After calcination of oyster shells mixed with 0.2-4.0 wt% sediments at $900^{\circ}C$ for 2 hours, regardless of the dehydration, dehydroxylation, and phase change of these minerals at the lower temperature than this experiment, no noticeable changes were observed on the specific surface area of the calcined product. However, when mixed with 0.1 to 2.0 wt% NaCl, the specific surface area generally increases as compared with the shell sample before calcination. The specific surface area increases with increasing amount of salt, and then decreases again. This is closely related to the changes of surface morphology. As the amount of NaCl increases, the morphology of the surface is similar to that of gel. It changes into a slightly angular, smaller particle and again looks like gel with increasing amount of NaCl. Our results show that NaCl affects morphological changes probably caused by melting of some oyster shells, but may have different effects on the specific surface area of calcination product depending on the NaCl contents.