• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.54 no.4
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• pp.36-59
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• 2021

This study infers the origin and production period of the , which is in the Onyang folk museum, through analysis and interpretation of the Haeju Palgyeong and exploration of the landscapes and traditions contained in the painting. The first collection of landscapes to Haeju was identified as Haeju Palgyeong by Ku Sa-meng (1531-1604). Yoo Man-ju, writing in 1782, referred to it as Go-palgyeong in 『Heumyeong』 while Haeju Palgyeong was defined as Geum-palgyeong (今八景), which is the Haeju Palgyeong in the earliest period confirmed by literature. is 'Boating on the Nam river (南江泛舟)', 'Lotus viewing at Buyongdang (芙蓉賞蓮)', 'Foot washing at Gwangseokcheon (廣石濯足)', 'Seokbyul at Haeunkyo (泣川送客)', 'Fishing at Haeunjeong (東亭釣魚)' and 'Sea view at Namsan( 南山望海)', and the final two contain a picture that contains 'Viewing the moon at Yeonghaeru (瀛海玩月)' and 'Writing contest and Archery at Baeklimjeong (栢林觀德)' The Suyang Chaemi(首陽採薇), Shingwang-jeoljeol (神光霽雪), and Jiseong falls (池城瀑布) of Gopalgyeong, which were excluded from Haeju Palgyeong, are all landscapes unfolding as a grand site of Suyangsan Mountain. is a result of the reorganization of Seunggyeong centered on Eupchi (邑治), away from the Suyangsan area. It has emerged as a seunggyeong of Haeju. The elaborateness of trying to contain the detailed prizes representing Haeju, such as the specialty sake of Haeju, is revealed. Most of the landscapes depicted in are historic and outstanding spots in Haemok, but the scenes of life related to daily life are properly arranged. In addition, Foot washing (濯足), Fishing(釣魚), Doing laundry (漂母), Lotus viewing (賞蓮), Sending guests (送客), Drinking (飮酒), sea viewing (望海), Moon viewing (玩月), Archery (射藝), Poetry (詩作), Drinking tea (飮茶), and Dancing (歌舞) are of various styles. Compared with the Gopalgyeongs, Haeju Palgyeong did not take into account the distribution of landscapes in the four seasons, and the small-sized view was also broken. When considering the time of the construction of Haeunjeong and the deterioration of Yeonghhoeru, it is believed that was produced in the early- to mid-18th century. is considered to be a painting that contributed to strengthening the sense of intimacy with the local people and promoting the pride of Haeju by showing the representative scenery of Haeju, such as scenic spots and customs, away from the ideal utopia.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.52 no.2
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• pp.62-79
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• 2019

This study examined the background of Gyeongju Seochulji Pond (world heritage, historic site No. 138), a historic pond in Sam-guk-yu-sa (三國遺事), and its landscaping period when it served as the garden of the Pungcheon Lim clan (豊川 任氏) in the middle of the Joseon dynasty. For this study, a literature review of poetry, prose, and a personal anthology, and a field survey were conducted. Changes in the landscape were analyzed by comparing the landscape appearing in the literature of the Joseon period with past photographs. The results were as follows: First, even though the function and landscape at that time cannot be guessed as the objective ground from Silla to the early part of the Joseon dynasty is insufficient, it has been managed as a Byeolseo (別墅) garden as Pungcheon Lim's family resided in the area of Eastern-Namsan Mountain during the Joseon dynasty. At that time, Seochulji Pond was recognized as a historic place. It functioned as the garden of Pungcheon Lim's family as Lim Jeok (任勣, 1612~1672) built the Yiyodang pavilion (二樂堂). Second, in the literature, the Yiyodang pavilion has been called Gaekdang (客堂), Jeongsa (精舍), Byeolgak (別閣) and Byeolseo, etc. It can be seen as Nu and Jeong (樓亭), utilized for various uses. Because of this, the name Bingheoru Pavilion (憑虛樓) has mostly been in common use. Third, Seochulji Pond was positioned where the scenery is beautiful, with Gyeongju Mt. Namsan (Mt. Geumo) in the background and with a wide field and the Namcheon River flowing in the front. This was typical of Byeolseo gardens of the Joseon dynasty, combining human environments with natural environments. Fourth, the relationship with the Byeolseo garden disappeared as the head of Pungcheon Lim's family added a temple, lotus flowers, pine trees, and a bamboo forest as described in the old poetry and prose. Currently, the landscape does not appear to be significantly different from that as development has not occurred in the area of Seochulji Pond. Also, crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica), which now symbolizes the Seochulji Pond, was not identified in the old poetry or past photographs and is not old enough to confirm whether it was prominent at the time. Through this study, it is necessary to reconsider the spatial meanings of the gardens of the Joseon dynasty period and not to highlight the area of Seochulji Pond as a place in the legend. This is a cultural asset in the area of Eastern-Namsan Mountain and has an important meaning in terms of garden history.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.45 no.3
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• pp.114-159
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• 2012

The Northern Song Dynasty Period (北宋時代) was a drastic transitional era in all aspect of Chinese society including the politico-economic system, ideology and cultural trait. These changes that began in the late Tang (唐) Dynasty Period accomplished in the Northern Song Dynasty. In this phase, the fundamental change influenced in all institutional area; and among them, the capital city planning and its associating building technology to pile stone walls shows one of the significant change of those time. Based on the geographical factor, confluences of many rivers, the Kaifeing (開封) area where the BianLieng palace had developed as a political and economical centre since the Tang Dynasty when the Grand Canal was constructed. According to archaeological researches, the central city structure of Dongjing Walled Town was begun to plan in the late Tang Dynasty and formed in Five Dynasties. The fundamental functional change of city completed in the Midnorthern Song Dynasty. In spite of the relatively late beginning of archaeological investigations to Kaifeng Walled Town and Dongjing Walled Town due to unfavourable natural environment, excavations inaugurated since 1981 have achieved the significant investigations including the actual measurement and excavation to the outer wall, the preliminary excavation to the inner city area, the investigation and excavation to the royal palace of Song and the survey to the royal palace of King Zho in the Ming (明) Dynasty. These surveys have provide important data to reconstruct the 변량 palace, and elucidate the characteristics of city plan in the Dongjing Walled Town and the institutional change of capital city plan of the Northern Song Dynasty. The basic layout of Dongjing Walled Town reflect the realisation of ideality of the late Chinese medieval capital city structure that establish the commercial and economic centre based on the intensification of emperor's power by means of the organisation of ethical institution and the development of commercial economy. Firstly, the central place of the Kaifeng area is encircled with triple walls. This emphasise the authority of emperor located on the summit in the hierarchical ethic system succeeding to the main capital city plan of the late phase of ancient China. Secondly, the location of Dongjing Walled Town was decided by the transport network and the commercial function and defence function. Thirdly, this site shows the change of city structure and landscape of the Northern Song Dynasty. The closed Fengri (坊里: block) system transferred the open Jiexiang (街巷: road) system. Fourthly, the capital city was characterised by the free market trade and the diversification of market place. Fifthly, a convenient transport network in the Bian River, a centre of the Grand Canals, enabled to construct the Kaifeng Walled Town. Therefore, the Northern Song Dynasty continuously accomplished the developed water system as concerning about the utilisation of waterways after the construction of city.

• MISULJARYO - National Museum of Korea Art Journal
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• v.99
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• pp.50-71
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• 2021

The Five-story Stone Pagoda from the Dongsa-ri Temple Site in Buyeo, dated to early Goyeo Dynasty, is valuable in that it is the southernmost example of the capital Kaesong pagoda style. This pagoda exhibits characteristics of the central Goryeo style featured in the pagodas built in and around the capital Kaesong, such as the diagonally curved section of the support for the cover stone above the upper stereobate. It also shares stylistic affinities with eleventh-century stone pagodas. The ansangmun (elephant eye patterns) in the lower stereobate of the Dongsa-ri Five-story Stone Pagoda resemble those in the pedestal of the Stone Seated Buddha (which was likely repaired in 1028 during the reign of King Hyeonjong), at the Jeongrimsa Temple site in Buyeo. It also reflects elements found in the flagpole supports from the Cheonheungsa Temple site in Cheonan. The sculpting techniques used in these patterns are also similar. Such congruencies suggest that the Dongsa-ri Five-story Stone Pagoda was built in the eleventh century. The Dongsa-ri Temple Site in Buyeo, located near the Geumgang River, served as a principal route for transporting grain-tax during the Goryeo Dynasty. It was also situated along the way to the Goryeo royal temple, Gaetaesa Temple. The geographical significance of the site and the extensive repairs undertaken at Jeongrimsa Temple during the reign of King Hyeonjong (r. 1009-1031) of the Goryeo Dynasty appear to have impacted the production of the Dongsa-ri Five-story Stone Pagoda. The Dongsa-ri Five-story Stone Pagoda also bears stylistic resemblances to the stone pagoda and flagpole supports found at neighboring Cheonheungsa Temple, which is presumed to be related to the establishment of Honggyeongsa (or Honggyeongwon) Temple in 1021 in Cheonan. This indicates the route of the transmission of the Kaesong pagoda style. The Five-story Stone Pagoda from the Dongsa-ri Temple Site pays testimony to the cultural accomplishments of eleventh-century stone artworks in Buyeo and adjacent regions. This pagoda embodies the majestic and assertive aesthetics that define of the Goryeo Dynasty, as do early Goryeo colossal Buddhist sculptures, including the Stone Standing Maitreya Bodhisattva at Daejosa Temple in Buyeo, the Stone Standing Buddha Triad at Gaetaesa Temple in Nonsan, and the Stone Standing Maitreya Bodhisattva at Gwanchoksa Temple in Nonsan. All of these bear similarities to the massive stone lantern and pagoda at Hyeonhwasa Temple in the capital Kaesong. The production of the light, sleek, sharp, and sophisticated Dongsa-ri Five-story Stone Pagoda is presumed to reflect the maturity of the cultural competence of the people in Dongsa-ri, Buyeo under the influence of Buddhist culture from the capital Kaesong during the eleventh century, a time marked by active cultural exchanges among regions.

• Journal of the Korean Geosynthetics Society
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• v.20 no.2
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• pp.23-33
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• 2021

In Korea, many reservoirs have been built for the purpose of solving the food shortage problem and supplying agricultural water. However, the current 75.6% of the reservoirs are in serious aged as more than 50 years have passed since the year of construction. In the case of such an aging reservoir, the stability due to scour and erosion inside the reservoir is very reduced, and if concentrated rainfall due to recent abnormal weather occurs, the aging reservoir may collapse, leading to a lot of damage to property and human life. Accordingly, each agency that manages aging reservoirs uses Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) as an injection material and applies the grouting method. However, in the case of OPC, it may deteriorate over time and water leakage may occur again. And there are environmental problems such as consumption of natural resources and generation of greenhouse gases. So, there is a need to develop new materials and methods that can replace the OPC. In this study, an laboratory test and analysis were performed on the grout material developed to induce a curing reaction similar to that of OPC by recycling power plant byproduct. In addition, test in the field such as electric resistivity survey, Standard Penetration Test (SPT), and field permeability test were performed to analyzed to reinforcement effect and determine the possibility of using instead of OPC. As a results of the test, in the case of recycled power plant byproduct, the compressive strength was 2.9 to 3.2 times and the deformation modulus was 2.3 to 3.3 times higher, indicating that it is excellent in strength and can be used instead of OPC. And it was analyzed that the N value of the reservoir was increased by 1~2, and the coefficient of permeability (k) decreased to the level of 8.9~42.5%. showing sufficient reinforcing effect in terms of order.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.41 no.1
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• pp.35-46
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• 2023

This study investigated and analyzed ancient records on the type, planting background, and construction process of Gwanbang forest(關防林) planned for military defense during the Joseon Dynasty to find out the purpose, location, and planting species of Gwanbang forest. The research results were as follows. During the Joseon Dynasty, Gwanbang forests were created around various government facilities(關防施設), such as Eupseong(邑城), major government offices, camps, and fortifications, for the purpose of defending against enemies. Gwanbang forest includes Yeongaeglim(嶺阨林), which was created on the crest of a strategically important hill, and Military Forest created for military purposes. Most of the spirit forest was designated as Geumsan(禁山) and protected and managed, and the Gwanbang forest was created for various purposes such as shielding, flood damage and river bank erosion prevention as well as external defense. In addition, in order to continuously and efficiently produce wood, which is a material for ships, buildings, and agricultural tools, in most cases, large areas were created as mixed forests. As for the species constituting the Gwanbang forest, there are records of tangerine tree, which is effective for defense because it has thorns, and deciduous broad-leaved trees such as zelkova, elm, willow, david hemiptelea, and oak appear. In the case of Ganghwa island, which served as the defense of the capital and the royal family during the Joseon Dynasty, several records have confirmed that a forest densely planted with trifoliate orange was created for the purpose of Gwanbang forest to reinforce the defense of the outer fortress. Based on historical research in the literature, assuming that the natural monument 'Gapgotri tangerine tree in Ganghwa Island' was planted in the 30th year of King Sukjong(1704), the first record of planting trifoliate orange in Ganghwa Island, the maximum age is estimated to be more than 319 years.

• Korean Journal of Ecology and Environment
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• v.56 no.4
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• pp.348-362
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• 2023

This study analyzed the monitoring results of fishways at 16 weirs constructed on four large Rivers to provide data helpful for the operation and management of fishways. The average utilization rate of the fishways at the weirs was confirmed to be 64.9%. When comparing the dominant species in the mainstream and fishway monitoring results, differences were observed in 9 weirs (56.3%). This indicated that the species prevalent in the mainstream were not necessarily the ones most frequently using the fishways. The average number of individuals using the fishways per day was 336. When classifying the fish species using the fishway by life type, 92.3% were primary freshwater fish, and migratory species accounted for only 5.6%. Analysis based on the season of fishway usage revealed that an average or higher number of fish species used the fishways from May to October, with the highest number of individual users occurring from June to August. Between May and July, 80% of the fish species using the fishways were in their spawning period, while during other season, less than 40% were species that move during the spawning period. The fishways that showed a significant alignment between the spawning period and the fishway passage period were Rhinogobius brunneus, Leiocassis nitidus, Squalidus chankaensis tsuchigae, Pseudogobio esocinus, Acheilognathus rhombeus, and Pungtungia herzi, in that order. When comparing the fishway monitoring results of the Gangjeong-Goryeong Weir and the Dalseong Weir with the upper part water level of the weir, both the number of fish species and individuals using the fishway showed positive correlations with the upper part water level of the weir. This suggests that a higher water level of the weir increases the inflow discharge within the fishway, leading to increased use by fish (number of individuals in Gangjeong-Goryeong Weir, P<0.001; number of species in Dalseong Weir, P<0.05). This study summarized and analyzed the results of fishway monitoring at 16 weirs built on four large Rivers, considering fishway efficiency, operation and management, monitoring period, and regulation of water level in the upper part of the weir. It is thought that this will help understand the status of fish use in fishways on large River and aid the construction, operation, and management of fishways in the future.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.53 no.4
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• pp.234-249
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• 2020

The dispute involving the construction of the Tomb of Queen Sindeok (hereinafter "Jeongreung"), King Taejo's wife in Seoul, and the moving of that tomb, represents the most clearly demonstrated case for the collision of new and old ideologies between political powers in the early period of Joseon. Jeongreung, the tomb of Queen Sindeok from the Kang Clan, was built inside the capital fortress, but in 1409, King Taejong forced the tomb to be moved outside the capital, and the stone relics remaining at the original location were used to build the stone bridge, Gwangtong-gyo. In an unofficial story, King Taejong moved the tomb outside the capital and used the stone items there to make the Cheonggyecheon Gwang-gyo so that the people would step upon the area in order to curse Lady Kang. In the final year of King Taejo, Lady Kang and King Taejong were in a politically conflictual relationship, but they were close to being political partners until King Taejo became the king. Sillok records pertaining to the establishment of Jeongreung or Gwangtong-gyo in fact state things more plainly, indicating that the moving of Jeongreung was a result of following the sangeon (a written statement to the king) of Uijeongbu (the highest administrative agency in Joseon), which stated that having the tomb of a king or queen in the capital was inappropriate, and since it was close to the official quarter of envoys, it had to be moved. The assertion that it was aimed at degrading Jeongreung in order to repair Gwangtong-gyo thus does not reflect the factual relationship. This article presents the possibility that the use of stone items from Jeongreung to repair Gwangtong-gyo reflected an emerging need for efficient material procurement that accompanied a drastic increase in demand for materials required in civil works both in- and outside the capital. The cause for constructing Jeongreung within the capital and the cause of moving the tomb outside the capital would therefore be attributable to the heterogeneity of the ideological backgrounds of King Taejo and King Taejong. King Taejo was the ruler of the Confucius state, as he reigned through the Yeokseong Revolution, but he constructed the tomb and Hongcheon-sa, the temple in the capital for his wife Queen Sindeok. In this respect, it is considered that, with the power of Buddhism, there was an attempt to rally supporters and gather the force needed to establish the authority of Queen Sindeok. Yi Seong-gye, who was raised in the Dorugachi clan of Yuan, lived as a military man in the border area, and so he would not have had a high level of understanding in Confucian scholarship. Rather, he was a man of the old system with its 'Buddhist" tendency. On the other hand, King Taejong Yi Bang-won was an elite Confucian student who passed the national examination at the end of the Goryeo era, and he is also known to have held a profound understanding of Neo-Confucianism. To state it differently, it would be reasonable to say that the understanding of symbolic implications for the capital would be more profound in a Confucian state. Since the national system that was ruled by laws had been established following the Three-Kingdom era, the principle of burial outside of the capital that would have seen a grave constructed on the outskirts of the capital was not upheld, without exception. Jeongreung was built inside the capital due to the strong individual desire of King Taejo, but since he was a Confucian scholar prior to becoming king, it would not have been accepted as desirable. After taking the throne, King Taejong took the initiative to begin overhauling the capital in order to reflect his intent to clearly realize Confucian ideology emphasizing 'Yechi' ("ruling with good manners") with the scenic view of the Capital's Hanyang river. It would be reasonable to conclude accordingly that the moving of Jeongreung was undertaken in the context of such a historic background.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.45 no.1
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• pp.11-25
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• 1979

There was much mass movement at many different mountain side of Peong Chang area in Kwangwon province by the influence of heavy rainfall through August/4 5, 1979. This study have done with the fact observed through the field survey and the information of the former researchers. The results are as follows; 1. Heavy rainfall area with more than 200mm per day and more than 60mm per hour as maximum rainfall during past 6 years, are distributed in the western side of the connecting line through Hoeng Seong, Weonju, Yeongdong, Muju, Namweon and Suncheon, and of the southern sea side of KeongsangNam-do. The heavy rain fan reason in the above area seems to be influenced by the mouktam range and moving direction of depression. 2. Peak point of heavy rainfall distribution always happen during the night time and seems to cause directly mass movement and serious damage. 3. Soil mass movement in Peongchang break out from the course sandy loam soil of granite group and the clay soil of lime stone and shale. Earth have moved along the surface of both bedrock or also the hardpan in case of the lime stone area. 4. Infiltration seems to be rapid on the both bedrock soil, the former is by the soil texture and the latter is by the crumb structure, high humus content and dense root system in surface soil. 5. Topographic pattern of mass movement spot is mostly the concave slope at the valley head or at the upper part of middle slope which run-off can easily come together from the surrounding slope. Soil profile of mass movement spot has wet soil in the lime stone area and loose or deep soil in the granite area. 6. Dominant slope degree of the soil mass movement site has steep slope, mostly, more than 25 degree and slope position that start mass movement is mostly in the range of the middle slope line to ridge line. 7. Vegetation status of soil mass movement area are mostly fire field agriculture area, it's abandoned grass land, young plantation made on the fire field poor forest of the erosion control site and non forest land composed mainly grass and shrubs. Very rare earth sliding can be found in the big tree stands but mostly from the thin soil site on the un-weatherd bed rock. 8. Dangerous condition of soil mass movement and land sliding seems to be estimated by the several environmental factors, namely, vegetation cover, slope degree, slope shape and position, bed rock and soil profile characteristics etc. 9. House break down are mostly happen on the following site, namely, colluvial cone and fan, talus, foot area of concave slope and small terrace or colluvial soil between valley and at the small river side Dangerous house from mass movement could be interpreted by the aerial photo with reference of the surrounding site condition of house and village in the mountain area 10. As a counter plan for the prevention of mass movement damage the technics of it's risk diagnosis and the field survey should be done, and the mass movement control of prevention should be started with the goverment support as soon as possible. The precautionary measures of house and village protection from mass movement damage should be made and executed and considered the protecting forest making around the house and village. 11. Dangerous or safety of house and village from mass movement and flood damage will be indentified and informed to the village people of mountain area through the forest extension work. 12. Clear cutting activity on the steep granite site, fire field making on the steep slope, house or village construction on the dangerous site and fuel collection in the eroded forest or the steep forest land should be surely prohibited When making the management plan the mass movement, soil erosion and flood problem will be concidered and also included the prevention method of disaster.