• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.48 no.4
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• pp.384-394
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• 2024

Background: Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), known to latently infect the host's trigeminal ganglion, can lead to severe herpes encephalitis or asymptomatic infection, potentially contributing to neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's. The virus generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) that significantly impact viral replication and induce chronic inflammation through NF-κB activation. Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), an oxidative stress regulator, can prevent and treat HSV-1 infection by activating the passive defense response in the early stages of infection. Methods and results: Our study investigated the antiviral effects of ginsenoside Rg5, an Nrf2 activator, on HSV-1 replication and several host cell signaling pathways. We found that HSV-1 infection inhibited Nrf2 activity in host cells, induced ROS/NF-κB signaling, and triggered inflammatory cytokines. However, treatment with ginsenoside Rg5 inhibited ROS/NF-κB signaling and reduced inflammatory cytokines through NRF2 induction. Interestingly, the Nrf2 inhibitor ML385 suppressed the expression of NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1(NQO1) and enhanced the expression of KEAP1 in HSV-1 infected cells. This led to the reversal of VP16 expression inhibition, a protein factor associated with HSV-1 infection, thereby promoting HSV-1 replication. Conclusion: These findings suggest for the first time that ginsenoside Rg5 may serve as an antiviral against HSV-1 infection and could be a novel therapeutic agent for HSV-1-induced neuroinflammation.

• Journal of KIISE:Software and Applications
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• v.30 no.5_6
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• pp.444-453
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• 2003

Recently, a great interest of bio-technology(BT) is concentrated and the image analysis technique for electrophoresis gels is highly requested to analyze genetic information or to look for some new bio-activation materials. For this purpose, the location and quantity of each band in a lane should be measured. In most of existing techniques, the approach of peak searching in a profile of a lane is used. But this peak is improper as the representative of a band, because its location does not correspond to that of the brightest pixel or the center of gravity. Also, it is improper to measure band quantity in most of these approaches because various enhancement processes are commonly applied to original images to extract peaks easily. In this paper, we adopt an approach to measure accumulated brightness as a band quantity in each band region, which Is extracted by not using any process of changing relative brightness, and the gravity center of the region is calculated as a band location. Actually, we first extract lanes with an entropy-based threshold calculated on a gel-image histogram. And then, three other methods are proposed and applied to extract bands. In the MER method, peaks and valleys are searched on a vertical search line by which each lane is bisected. And the minimum enclosing rectangle of each band is set between successive two valleys. On the other hand, in the RG-1 method, each band is extracted by using region growing with a peak as a seed, separating overlapped neighbor bands. In the RG-2 method, peaks and valleys are searched on two vertical lines by which each lane is trisected, and the left and right peaks nay be paired up if they seem to belong to the same band, and then each band region is grown up with a peak or both peaks if exist. To compare above three methods, we have measured the location and amount of bands. As a result, the average errors in band location of MER, RG-1, and RG-2 were 6%, 3%, and 1%, respectively, when the lane length is normalized to a unit value. And the average errors in band amount were 8%, 5%, and 2%, respectively, when the sum of band amount is normalized to a unit value. In conclusion, RG-2 was shown to be more reliable in the accuracy of measuring the location and amount of bands.

• Journal of Pharmacopuncture
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• v.10 no.1 s.22
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• pp.37-53
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• 2007

Objectives : The aim of this experiments is to provide an objective differentiation of ginseng, Korean and Chinese cultivated wild ginseng, and natural wild ginseng through components analysis of different parts of ginseng. Methods : Comparative analyses of ginsenoside-$Rg_3$, ginsenoside-$Rh_2$, and ginsenosides $Rb_1$ and $Rg_1$ from the root, stem, and leaves of ginseng, Korean and Chinese cultivated wild ginseng, and natural wild ginseng were conducted using HPLC. Results : 1. For content comparison of leaves, ginseng showed highest content of ginsenoside $Rg_1$ than other samples. Natural wild ginseng showed relatively high content of ginsenosides $Rg_1$ and $Rb_1$ than other samples. 2. For content comparison of the stem, ginseng and 10 years old Chinese cultivated wild ginseng didn't contain ginsenoside $Rb_1$. Natural wild ginseng showed higher content of ginsenosides $Rg_1$ and $Rb_1$ than other samples. 3. For content comparison of the root, ginsenoside $Rh_2$ was found only in 5 and 10 years old Korean cultivated wild ginseng. 4. Distribution of contents by the parts of ginseng was similar in ginseng and Chinese cultivated wild ginseng. Conclusions : Above experiment data can be an important indicator for the identification of ginseng, Korean and Chinese cultivated wild ginseng, and natural wild ginseng.

• KOREAN JOURNAL OF CROP SCIENCE
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• v.29 no.4
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• pp.342-349
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• 1984

In order to obtain the basic information for the development of ginseng varieties with high saponin contents. saponin contents and ginsenosides of Panax ginseng (Korean ginseng) and Panax quinquefolium (American ginseng) grown under the same environmental conditions were analysed. Crude saponin contents of root and aerial parts were more in Panax quinquefolium than in Panax ginseng, and aerial parts had more saponin contents in comparison with a root. Protopanaxatriol saponin was greatly more in the aerial parts of ginseng while more amount of protopanaxadiol saponins were detected in the root. As for the ginsenosides, the patterns of ginsenosides detected in total saponin of the aerial parts were not different between two species, Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolium, but the root ginsenoside patterns were quite different. Ginsenosides such as Rg$_2$, R$_{f}$. R$_{a}$ and R$_{o}$ were not detected in the root of Panax quinquefolium (American ginseng).).).).

• Korean Journal of Pharmacognosy
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• v.46 no.3
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• pp.173-188
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• 2015

We have conducted a comprehensive literature review regarding the chemical constituents and biological activities of Korean black ginseng(Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer), three to nine times-steamed and dried ginseng, which shows strong black color through Maillared browning reaction. It has been reported that some chemically deglycosylated and transformed saponins are obtained from black ginseng as artifacts produced during intensive steaming. They have been known to be ginsenosides Rg3, Rg4, Rg5, Rg6, Rh1, Rh2, Rh4, Rk1 and Rk3, quite different from those of red ginseng, among which ginsenosides Rg3, Rg5 and Rk1 are considered to be major components. And also, black ginseng has been recently found to demonstrate anticancer, recovery from learning and memory damages, hypontensive, antidiabetic, antiobesitic, tonic and antiatopic activities, together with antioxidative and exercise performance improving activities, exhibiting their effects to be a little bit stronger than those of red ginseng. These findings suggest that black ginsng might play an important role in the development of promising functional foods and drugs from the viewpoint of the chemical composition and biological activities of black ginseng with a distinction from those of white and red ginsengs. In this review, the authors will survey and evaluate further functions of black ginseng with a focus on its physicochemical properties and biological activities.

• Biomedical Science Letters
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• v.20 no.3
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• pp.173-179
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• 2014

Asian sand dust is known to promote various respiratory symptoms or disorders. For the prevention of harmful health effects by Asian sand dust, the best strategy is known to avoid or reduce exposure to the Asian sand dust. Several studies have shown that Korean red ginseng (RG) has anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects. The study aimed to clarify the effect of Korean red ginseng intake on lung inflammation responses to artificial sand dust (ASD) similar to Asian sand dust. BALB/c mice were divided into five groups (n=12) of control (saline), ovalbumin (OVA), OVA with ASD, OVA plus RG with ASD, and OVA plus dexamethasone (DEXA) with ASD. Histopathologic evaluation of lung was conducted. Interleukin (IL)-5, IL-12, interferon (IFN)-${\gamma}$, IL-13, monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1, and eotaxin within bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid were measured by ELISA. OVA+ASD group significantly increased concentrations of IL-5, IL-13, MCP-1, and eotaxin (P<0.01) compared to the control. OVA+ASD+RG group showed significant decreased levels of IL-2, IL-13, MCP-1 and eotaxin (P<0.01) compared with OVA+ASD. Between RG and DEXA treatment groups, there was no significant difference in all cytokines and chemokines. The inflammatory cells were significantly decreased in treatment groups with RG or DEXA compared to OVA+ASD group. This study suggests a beneficial effect of Korean RG administration in preventing inflammation of lung resulting from Asian sand dust.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.41 no.2
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• pp.180-187
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• 2017

Background: The incidence of halitosis has a prevalence of 22-50% throughout the world and is generally caused by anaerobic oral microorganisms, such as Fusobacterium nucleatum, Clostridium perfringens, and Porphyromonas gingivalis. Previous investigations on the structure-activity relationships of ginsenosides have led to contrasting results. Particularly, the antibacterial activity of less polar ginsenosides against halitosis-related bacteria has not been reported. Methods: Crude saponins extracted from the Panax quinquefolius leaf-stem (AGS) were treated at $130^{\circ}C$ for 3 h to obtain heat-transformed saponins (HTS). Five ginsenoside-enriched fractions (HTS-1, HTS-2, HTS-3, HTS-4, and HTS-5) and less polar ginsenosides were separated by HP-20 resin absorption and HPLC, and the antimicrobial activity and mechanism were investigated. Results: HPLC with diode-array detection analysis revealed that heat treatment induced an extensive conversion of polar ginsenosides (-Rg1/Re, -Rc, -Rb2, and -Rd) to less polar compounds (-Rg2, -Rg3, -Rg6, -F4, -Rg5, and -Rk1). The antimicrobial assays showed that HTS, HTS-3, and HTS-4 were effective at inhibiting the growth of F. nucleatum, C. perfringens, and P. gingivalis. Ginsenosides-Rg5 showed the best antimicrobial activity against the three bacteria, with the lowest values of minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration. One major reason for this result is that less polar ginsenosides can more easily damage membrane integrity. Conclusion: The results indicated that the less polar ginsenoside-enriched fraction from heat transformation can be used as an antibacterial agent to control halitosis.

• Preventive Nutrition and Food Science
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• v.14 no.3
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• pp.201-207
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• 2009

In an effort to improve ginsenoside bioavailability, the ginsenosides of fermented red ginseng were examined with respect to bioavailability and physiological activity. The results showed that the fermented red ginseng (FRG) had a high level of ginsenoside metabolites. The total ginsenoside contents in non-fermented red ginseng (NFRG) and FRG were 35715.2 ${\mu}g$/mL and 34822.9 ${\mu}g$/mL, respectively. However, RFG had a higher content (14914.3 ${\mu}g$/mL) of ginsenoside metabolites (Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, CK, Rh1, F2, and Rg2) compared to NFRG (5697.9 ${\mu}g$/mL). The skin permeability of RFG was higher than that of NFRG using Franz diffusion cells. Particularly, after 5 hr, the skin permeability of RFG was significantly (p<0.05) higher than that of NFRG. Using everted instestinal sacs of rats, RFG showed a high transport level (10.3 mg of polyphenols/g sac) compared to NFRG (6.67 of mg of polyphenols/g sac) after 1 hr. After oral administration of NFRG and FRG to rats, serum concentrations were determined by HPLC. Peak concentrations of Rk1, Rh1, Rc, and Rg5 were approximately 1.64, 2.35, 1.13, and 1.25-fold higher, respectively, for FRG than for NFRG. Furthermore, Rk1, Rh1, and Rg5 increased more rapidly in the blood by the oral administration of FRG versus NFRG. FRG had dramatically improved bioavailability compared to NFRG as indicated by skin permeation, intestinal permeability, and ginsenoside levels in the blood. The significantly greater bioavailability of FRG may have been due to the transformation of its ginsenosides by fermentation to more easily absorbable forms (ginsenoside metabolites).

• Journal of Applied Biological Chemistry
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• v.62 no.4
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• pp.315-322
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• 2019

Seasonal ginsenoside flux in the leaves of 5-year-old Panax ginseng was analyzed from the field-grown ginseng, for the first time, to study possible biosynthesis and translocation of ginsenosides. The concentrations of nine major ginsenosides, Rg1, Re, Rh1, Rg2, R-Rh1, Rb1, Rc, Rb2, and Rd, were determined by UHPLC during the growth in between April and November. It was confirmed total ginsenoside content in the dried ginseng leaves was much higher than the roots by several folds whereas the composition of ginsenosides was different from the roots. The ginsenoside flux was affected by ginseng growth. It quickly increased to 10.99±0.15 (dry wt%) in April and dropped to 6.41±0.14% in May. Then, it slowly increased to 9.71±0.14% in August and maintained until October. Ginsenoside Re was most abundant in the leaf of P. ginseng, followed by Rd and Rg1. Ginsenosides Rf and Ro were not detected from the leaf. When compared to the previously reported root data, ginsenosides in the leaf appeared to be translocated to the root, especially in the early vegetative stage even though the metabolite translocated cannot be specified. The flux of ginsenoside R-Rh1 was similar to the other (20S)-PPT ginsenosides. When the compositional changes of each ginsenoside in the leaf was analyzed, complementary relationship was observed from ginsenoside Rg1 and Re, as well as from ginsenoside Rd and Rb1+Rc. Accordingly, ginsenoside Re in the leaf was proposed to be synthesized from ginsenoside Rg1. Similarly, ginsenosides Rb1 and Rc were proposed to be synthesized from Rd.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.33 no.1
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• pp.48-54
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• 2009

Epileptifrom discharges were induced in the telencephalon of the adult zebrafish via perfusion with pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), bicuculline methiodide, kainic acid-treated artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF), and $Mg^{2+}$-free aCSF. Ginseng total saponin [GTS ($50{\mu}g/ml$)] was shown to attenuate the occurrence rate of epilpetiform discharges by 50-75%, compared to the control. Ginsenoside $Rg_1$ ($130{\mu}M$) reduced the epileptiform discharges in the isolated telencephalon and delayed the occurrence of behavioral seizures observed from the adult zebrafish placed in the PTZ (10 mM)-containing aquarium water. However, Re was not effective in the suppression of epileptiform discharges and behavioral seizures. These results indicate that $Rg_1$ may be useful in the control of epileptiform discharges and effective in controlling behavioral seizures, and that the zebrafish can be used as a model animal for the testing of potential anticonvulsant drugs.