• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition
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• v.39 no.8
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• pp.1194-1200
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• 2010

This study was carried out to investigate the compositional changes of ginsenosides and phenolic acids of ginseng leaf by fermentation in order to promote the utilization of ginseng leaf. The chief ginsenosides in non-fermented ginseng leaf (NFGL) were ginsenoside-Rg1 (26.0 mg/g), -Re (47.3 mg/g) and -Rd (23.9 mg/g). By fermentation, ginsenoside-Rg1, -Rb1, -Rb2, -Rb3, -Rc and -Re were decreased tremendously and new ginsenoside-Rh2, -Rh1, -Rg2 and -Rg3 appeared. Especially, ginsenoside-Rg3 (3.7 mg/g) on FGL was increased 15-fold compared to that of NFGL (0.2 mg/g). Total phenolic compound content of NFGL and FGL measured by colorimetric analysis was 350.4 and 312.5 mg%, respectively. There were 8 free and 6 ester forms of phenolic acids in NFGL. Among them, content of ferulic acid was the highest, comprised of 12.6 and 50.7 mg%, respectively. In FGL, total content of protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, and vanillic acid were increased by 28, 5 and 7.8 fold and ferulic acid was decreased greatly. Tyrosinase inhibitory activity of FGL was stronger than NFGL, while electron donating abilities of FGL were similar to NFGL.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.23 no.4
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• pp.235-238
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• 1999

ATP-sensitive $K^+$ channels $(K_{ATP})$ are expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells, skeletal muscle cells, pancreatic ${\beta}$ cells, neurons and epithelial cells. $K_{ATP}$ contributes to regulate membrane potential to control vascular tone, to protect myocardial ischemia, and to regulate insulin secretion in pancreatic ${\beta}$ cells. We previously demonstrated that ginseng saponins and ginsenoside $Rg_3$ activated maxi $Ca^{2+}-activated\;K^+$ channel, and this might cause vasodilation. Because $K_{ATP}$ plays an important roles to regulate the resting membrane potential in vascular smooth muscle cells, we investigated whether ginsenoside $Rg_3$ produces vasodilation by activating $K_{ATP}$ We showed in this study that $K_{ATP}$ is expressed in rabbit coronary artery smooth muscle cells. $K_{ATP}$ was inwardly rectifying and was inhibited by intemal application of ATP. Micromolar minoxidil activated, but glyburide inhibited the activity of $K_{ATP}$ Ginsenoside $Rg_3$ relieved inactivaiton of whole-cell $K_{ATP}$ current without affecting the peak amplitude of $K_{ATP}$ currents presumably due to more opening of the channels.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.27 no.3
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• pp.110-114
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• 2003

Objective; Antistress effect of Korean red ginseng (RG) on postmenopausal women with severe climacteric syndrome (CS) were evaluated from the viewpoint of traditional KAMPO-medicine and Western medicine. Methods; All patients with CS were treated with daily oral administration of 6g RG for 30 days. Nine patients with CS were evaluated with the use of diagnostic scores for KI-deficiency (deficiency of vital energy) and OKETSU (blood stagnation) syndrome from the viewpoint of KAMPO-medicine. In the same patients with CS, peripheral blood levels of ${\beta}$-endorphin and total plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (t-PAI-1) were measured before and after treatment with RG. In another group, 12 patients with CS, psychological test using CMI, STAI and SDS were performed from the viewpoint of Western medicine. Stress related hormones, such as ACTH, cortisol and DHEA-S in those 12 patients with CS were also measured before and after treatment with RG. Results; KI-deficiency score and OKETSU score in patients with CS were significantly (p<0.001) higher than those in patients without CS. After treatment with RG, both scores were markedly (p<0.001) decreased compared to before treatment with RG. ${\beta}$-endorphin levels in patients with CS were significantly (p<0.05) higher than those in patients without CS. Total PAI-levels in patients with CS were increased before treatment with RG. No significant difference, however, were observed between patients with and without CS. After treatment with RG, both levels of ${\beta}$-endorphin and total PAI-1 in patients with CS were significantly (p<0.001 and p<0.05, respectively) decreased compared to before treatment with RG. CMI and STAI scores in patients with CS were significantly (p<0.05) higher than those in patients without CS. SDS scores in patients with CS were also markedly (p<0.00l) higher than in those without CS. After treatment with RG, all scores decreased within normal range. DHEA-S levels in patients with CS were about a half of those without CS. Consequently, cortisol/DHEA-S (C/D) ratio was significantly(p<0.001) higher in patients with CS than in those without CS. Although the decreased DHEA-S levels were not restored to the levels in patients without CS, the C/D ratio decreased significantly (p<0.05) after treatment with RG. Conclusion; Reinforcement of vital energy and improvement of stagnant blood circulations by oral administration of RG were elucidated from the viewpoint of traditional KAMPO-medicine. From the viewpoint of Western medicine, effect of RG on postmenopsusal women with CS seemed to be brought about in part by not only an improvement of psychoneuroendocrine dysfunctions but also an amelioration of blood coagulation systems.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.23 no.1 s.53
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• pp.50-54
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• 1999

In this paper, the saponin enzymatic hydrolysis of ginsenoside Rg3 was studied. The $ginsenoside-{\beta}-glucosidase$ from FFCDL-48 strain mainly hydrolyzed the ginsenoside Rg3 to Rh2, the enzyme from FFCDL-00 strain hydrolyzed Rg3 to the mixture of Rh2 and protopanaxadiol (aglycon). The $ginsenoside-{\beta}-glucosidase$ from FFCDL-48 strain was purified with a column of DEAE-Cellulose to one spot in the SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. During the purification, the enzyme specific acitvity was increased about 10 times. The purified $ginsenoside-{\beta}-glucosidase$ can hydrolyze the Rg3 to Rh2, but do not hydrolyze the $p-nitrophenyl-{\beta}-glucoside$ which is a substrate of original exocellulase such as ${\beta}-glucosidase$ of cellulose. The molecular weight of $ginsenoside-{\beta}-glucosidase$ was 34,000, the optimal temperature of enzyme reaction was $50^{\circ}C,$ and the optimal pH was 5.0.

• Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology
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• v.30 no.1
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• pp.101-108
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• 2020

Infections by herpes simplex viruses have an immense impact on humans, ranging from self-limiting, benign illness to serious, life-threatening diseases. While nucleoside analog drugs are available, resistance has been increasing and currently no vaccine exists. Ginsenosides derived from Panax ginseng have been documented to inhibit several viruses and bolster immune defenses. This study evaluated 12 of the most relevant ginsenosides from P. ginseng for toxicities and inhibition of herpes simplex viruses types 1 and 2 in Vero cells. The effects of test compounds and virus infection were determined using a PrestoBlue cell viability assay. Time course studies were also conducted to better understand at what points the virus life cycle was affected. Non-toxic concentrations of the ginsenosides were determined and ranged from 12.5 μM to greater than 100 μM. Ginsenoside 20(S)-Rg3 demonstrated the greatest inhibitory effect and was active against both HSV-1 and HSV-2 with an IC₅₀ of approximately 35 μM. The most dramatic inhibition-over 100% compared to controls-occurred when the virus was exposed to 20(S)-Rg3 for 4 h prior to being added to cells. 20(S)-Rg3 holds promise as a potential chemotherapeutic agent against herpes simplex viruses and, when used together with valacyclovir, may prevent increased resistance to drugs.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.38 no.1
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• pp.47-51
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• 2014

The transformation of ginsenoside Rb1 into a specific minor ginsenoside using Aspergillus niger KCCM 11239, as well as the identification of the transformed products and the pathway via thin layer chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography were evaluated to develop a new biologically active material. The conversion of ginsenoside Rb1 generated Rd, Rg3, Rh2, and compound K although the reaction rates were low due to the low concentration. In enzymatic conversion, all of the ginsenoside Rb1 was converted to ginsenoside Rd and ginsenoside Rg3 after 24 h of incubation. The crude enzyme (b-glucosidase) from A. niger KCCM 11239 hydrolyzed the ${\beta}$-($1{\rightarrow}6$)-glucosidic linkage at the C-20 of ginsenoside Rb1 to generate ginsenoside Rd and ginsenoside Rg3. Our experimental demonstration showing that A. niger KCCM 11239 produces the ginsenoside-hydrolyzing b-glucosidase reflects the feasibility of developing a specific bioconversion process to obtain active minor ginsenosides.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.38 no.3
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• pp.194-202
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• 2014

Background: Ginsenosides, the major ingredients of Panax ginseng, have been studied for many decades in Asian countries as a result of their wide range of pharmacological properties. The less polar ginsenosides, with one or two sugar residues, are not present in nature and are produced during manufacturing processes by methods such as heating, steaming, acid hydrolysis, and enzyme reactions. $^1H$-NMR and $^{13}C$-NMR spectroscopic data for the identification of the less polar ginsenosides are often unavailable or incomplete. Methods: We isolated 21 compounds, including 10 pairs of 20(S) and 20(R) less polar ginsenosides (1-20), and an oleanane-type triterpene (21) from a processed ginseng preparation and obtained complete $^1H$-NMR and $^{13}C$-NMR spectroscopic data for the following compounds, referred to as compounds 1-21 for rapid identification: 20(S)-ginsenosides Rh2 (1), 20(R)-Rh2 (2), 20(S)-Rg3 (3), 20(R)-Rg3 (4), 6'-O-acetyl-20(S)-Rh2 [20(S)-AcetylRh2] (5), 20(R)-AcetylRh2 (6), 25-hydroxy-20(S)-Rh2 (7), 25-hydroxy-20(S)-Rh2 (8), 20(S)-Rh1 (9), 20(R)-Rh1 (10), 20(S)-Rg2 (11), 20(R)-Rg2 (12), 25-hydroxy-20(S)-Rh1 (13), 25-hydroxy-20(R)-Rh1 (14), 20(S)-AcetylRg2 (15), 20(R)-AcetylRg2 (16), Rh4 (17), Rg5 (18), Rk1 (19), 25-hydroxy-Rh4 (20), and oleanolic acid 28-O-b-D-glucopyranoside (21).

• Food Science and Biotechnology
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• v.17 no.4
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• pp.883-887
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• 2008

The purpose of this study was to develop a new preparation process for chemical transformation of ginseng saponin glycosides to prosapogenins. Ginseng and ginseng extracts were processed under several treatment conditions using ascorbic acid solution. Treating with ascorbic acid at pH 2-3 and above $80^{\circ}C$ increased the ginsenoside $Rg_3$ content of samples to over 3% as compared to other pH levels and temperatures. In addition, ginseng and ginseng extracts that were processed under a high ascorbic acid solution treatment condition (pH 2.0, 5 hr) contained more ginsenoside $Rg_3$ (approximately 16 times) than those processed under a low ascorbic acid solution treatment condition (pH 3.0, 5 hr). The highest quantity of ginsenoside $Rg_3$ (3.434%) occurred when a sample of fine ginseng root extract (AG2-9) was processed with the ascorbic acid solution at pH 2.0 for 9 hr. However, there was no change in the amount of ginsenoside $Rg_3$ when fine ginseng root extracts were processed with ascorbic acid solution at pH 2.0 for over 9 hr. In conclusion, the results indicated that ascorbic acid treatment of ginseng extracts can produce a level of ginsenoside $Rg_3$ that is over 90-fold the amount found in commercial red ginseng.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.35 no.1
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• pp.60-68
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• 2011

The chemical and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity changes of ginsenoside $Rb_1$-glycine and ginsenoside $Rg_1$-glycine mixtures by Maillard reaction were investigated to identify the role of Maillard reaction in the increased antioxidant activity of ginseng by heat-processing. The DPPH radical scavenging activity of $Rg_1$-glycine mixture was more strongly increased by heat-processing than that of $Rb_1$-glycine mixture. From the analyses of ginsenosides, $Rb_1$ was gradually changed into 20(S)-$Rg_3$, 20(R)-$Rg_3$, $Rk_1$ and $Rg_5$ by heat-processing. $Rg_1$ was gradually changed into 20(S)-$Rh_1$, 20(R)-$Rh_1$, $Rk_3$ and $Rh_4$ by heat-processing. However, the generation of these less-polar ginsenosides was not related to the increased DPPH radical scavenging activity of $Rb_1$-glycine and $Rg_1$-glycine mixtures because their DPPH radical scavenging activities were already significantly increased when dried at $50^{\circ}C$, which temperature induce no structural changes of ginsenosides. In the comparison of browning compound levels of $Rg_1$-glycine and $Rb_1$-glycine mixtures, the extents of Maillard reaction were positively correlated with their increased free radical scavenging activities. Based on the chemical and DPPH radical scavenging activity changes of $Rg_1$-glycine and $Rb_1$-glycine mixtures by heat-processing, we clearly identified that the increased free radical scavenging activity of ginsenoside is mediated by the Maillard reaction between sugar moiety of ginsenoside and amino acid.

• Journal of Gastric Cancer
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• v.21 no.4
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• pp.368-378
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• 2021

Purpose: When patients with early gastric cancer (EGC) undergo non-curative endoscopic submucosal dissection requiring gastrectomy (NC-ESD-RG), additional medical resources and expenses are required for surgery. To reduce this burden, predictive model for NC-ESD-RG is required. Materials and Methods: Data from 2,997 patients undergoing ESD for 3,127 forceps biopsy-proven differentiated-type EGCs (2,345 and 782 in training and validation sets, respectively) were reviewed. Using the training set, the logistic stepwise regression analysis determined the independent predictors of NC-ESD-RG (NC-ESD other than cases with lateral resection margin involvement or piecemeal resection as the only non-curative factor). Using these predictors, a risk-scoring system for predicting NC-ESD-RG was developed. Performance of the predictive model was examined internally with the validation set. Results: Rate of NC-ESD-RG was 17.3%. Independent pre-ESD predictors for NC-ESD-RG included moderately differentiated or papillary EGC, large tumor size, proximal tumor location, lesion at greater curvature, elevated or depressed morphology, and presence of ulcers. A risk-score was assigned to each predictor of NC-ESD-RG. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for predicting NC-ESD-RG was 0.672 in both training and validation sets. A risk-score of 5 points was the optimal cut-off value for predicting NC-ESD-RG, and the overall accuracy was 72.7%. As the total risk score increased, the predicted risk for NC-ESD-RG increased from 3.8% to 72.6%. Conclusions: We developed and validated a risk-scoring system for predicting NC-ESD-RG based on pre-ESD variables. Our risk-scoring system can facilitate informed consent and decision-making for preoperative treatment selection between ESD and surgery in patients with EGC.