• THE INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE & LAW REVIEW
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• v.22
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• pp.201-226
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• 2004

P & I Clubs are mutual and non-profit making insurers which offer shipowners cover for the contractual and third-party liabilities. Whereas most shipowners obtain P & I insurance to cover for their legal liabilities, they also obtain hull insurance to cover against damages to the hull of their vessels from commercial hull insurers. P & I insurance was distinguished from hull insurance in respect that it offered non-limited cover to shipowner member, but there was a serious debate between P & I Clubs in respect of the non-limited cover. A compromise by International Group of P & I Clubs eventually emerged under which, with effect from 20 February 1997, a financial cap was placed on the obligation of each shipowner to pay catasrophe calls to his club(20% of each ship's property limitation fund under 1976 Limitation Convention). Nevertheless many shipowners felt that this new cap on their potential catastrophe call had been set still too high, while others resisted any reduction in the figure established by the compromise. In the Meantime, the European Commission issued a Statement of Objections in June 1997, in which it indicated its objections with a compulsory single limit common th all the Group clubs as high as the 1997 compromise. Eventually the board of all the Group clubs decided that the figure of 20% of the Limitation Convention per ship property funds should be dropped down to 2.5% from 20 February 1999.

• THE INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE & LAW REVIEW
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• v.34
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• pp.77-108
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• 2007

The traditional name given to the insurance of third party liabilities and certain contractual liabilities which arise in connection with the operation of ships is protection and indemnity(P & I) insurance. P & I insurance is very different from traditional hull and machinery insurance in that shipowners' hull and machinery insurance is designed primarily to protect the assured against losses to his vessel, whereas P & I insurance seeks to indemnify an shipowner in respect of the discharge of legal liabilities he has incurred in operating his own vessels. This study is to examine the background of establishment of British P & I clubs md, therefore, the identity of P & I insurance. The present British P & I clubs are the remote descendants of the many small and local hull mutual insurance clubs that were formed by British shipowners in the end of 18th century. At that time, British shipowners were dissatified with the state of marine insurance market and, therefore, established clubs together in mutual hull insurance clubs. After the removal of the company monopoly in 1824, greater competition had a good effect on the rates, terms of cover and service offered by the commercial marine insurance market and by Lloyd's underwriters, and the hull clubs became less necessary and went into decline. The burden of British shipowners on liabilities to third parties was steadily increased after the middle of the 19th century, but the amount insured under hull policy was limited in the insured value of the ship. Eventually, the first protection club, that is, the Shipowners' Mutual Protection Society was formed in 1855. It was designed to like past mutual hull clubs, but to cover liabilities for loss of life and personal injury and also the collision risks excluded from the current marine policies, particularly the excess above the limits in hull policies. In 1870, the risks of liability for loss of or damage to cargo carried on board the insured ship was first awarded by the British shipowners. After 1874, many protection clubs formed indemnity club to cover the risk of liability for loss or damage to cargo. As mentioned above, British P & I clubs have been steadily changed according to the response of shipowners under the rapidly changing law of British shipowners' liability, and so on in the future.

• Journal of Navigation and Port Research
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• v.35 no.10
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• pp.855-861
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• 2011

With the rapid growth and development of the Korean Shipping Industry both in external quantum and internal complexity, the marine insurance industry has accordingly expanded with it. This empirical study analyzes the quality factors of the Insurance and P&I Services using 5 factors of quality measures with 22 questions regarding the effect on customer satisfaction by the services offered by the P&I Clubs. The Study is expected to provide P&I Clubs with management tactics for customer satisfaction and the subsequent continued patronage supported by their members through the enhancement of the service quality. This study also provides direction for ship-owners and the members of the P&I Clubs in finding the most efficient service provider as well as in proposing competitive prices of the P&I insurance premium as their management tactic.

• Proceedings of the Korean Institute of Navigation and Port Research Conference
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• 2004.08a
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• pp.123-128
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• 2004

A lot of efforts have been made to improve maritime safety by means of enhancing safety legislation and verifying the compliance thereof. However, with the development of mutual insurance, it is contributing more and more to better maritime safety. The P＆I clubs to be discussed in the paper are now not only exercising controls and providing guidance in event of emergencies, but also keeping close and continuous monitoring over safety operations and conditions of those vessels entered, through their world-wide network and advanced communication, and by professional accident-handling teams. In view of this, it is necessary to discuss the roles of commercial shipping and the close linkage between it and onboard safety practices. The paper looks at first basic principles in maritime insurance, and then focuses on the rules and activities of P＆I clubs and their implications upon shipboard operations.

• THE INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE & LAW REVIEW
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• v.9
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• pp.187-222
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• 1996

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.6 no.1
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• pp.147-153
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• 1993

A total of 109 heads of horses and ponies from eight horseback riding clubs nearby Central Taiwan were investigated to evaluate the blood parameters and the biochemical compositions of serum for the documentation of clinical pathological diagnosis and exercise physiology. Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein of resting horses. The sex difference in the blood traits were compared both in horses and in ponies. Results shows that total plasma proteins (PP) and hematocrit (PCV) were found higher in male horses than in females (p < 0.05). The sexual effect also exertes a significant influence on the leucocyte (WBC) count, but not on the erythrocyte (RBC) concentration. According to the differential counts of leucocytes, the number of monocytes and lymphocytes was higher in the male pony than that of in male horse. A close relationship Between the erythrocyte sedimention rate (ESR) and the other blood parameters were found especially in PCV, RBC concentration, and plasma protein level. The average ESR observed at 60 minutes were $21.80{\pm}21.87mm$, $39.50{\pm}18.90mm$ and $43.73{\pm}17.89mm$ in stallions, geldings, and mares, respectively. Most of the biochemical components of horse serum detected were distributed in normal ranges, although some of the items show a great variation in such a large sample size.

• Journal of Veterinary Clinics
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• v.10 no.2
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• pp.171-184
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• 1993

In Seoul area, there are so many kennel clubs, veterinary hospital, pet establishment and breeding confers that various problems have occurred. They are crowed pet houses, poor sanitation, stress to puppies, sudden environmental changes to puppies and unvaccination against parvovirus, canine distemper virus, parainfluenza virus, infectious hepatitis caused by Adenovirus type I and Leptospira. Several studies were made to survey the infectious agents involved in acute diarrhea of poppies in Seoul are, such as history taking, physical examination, complete blood count and serum chemistry, histopathological finding, bacterial isolation and identification, and hemagglutination test in feces and hemagglutination inhibition test in serum against parvovirus, respectively. The results obtained are summarized as followed. 1. The percent of PCV (30.5$\pm$5.6) and concentration of Total protein(5.0$\pm$0.8) resulted from statistical analysis are significantly lower than normal values (p<0.05), respectively. In addition, fibrinogen (505$\pm$326) was significantly higher an normal value (p<0.001), Band neutrophil (22.9$\pm$12.7) showed signifiant difference (P<0.01). decreased monocyte (3.2$\pm$2.1) and eosinophil (0.7$\pm$0.8) values appeared statistically significant (p<0.001), lymphocyte (16.7$\pm$9), as well. 2. The concentrations of calcium .(8.0$\pm$2.8), glucose (40.1$\pm$31.4), and albumin (2.0$\pm$0.39) were lower than normal values (p<0.01, p<0.01, p<0.001), respectively. Also Inorganic phosphate (7.1$\pm$2.4), pH (p<7.9f:0.2), and Blood Urea Nitrogen (40.41=37.1) were significantly higher than normal values (p<0.001, p(0.001, p<0.05), respectively. 3. Simple and mixed infections occupied 18% and 82% in the distribution of causes in puppies with acute diarrhea, respectively. 4. As puppies got older, incidence of acute diarrhea caused by Staphylococcus aureus was decreased to 13% and infection of canine distemper virus was increased to 53%, but E coli and canine parvovirus always showed high frequency of outbreak in the body weight ranged from 35g to 7.8Kg. 5. As showed in table 5, infections of E coli and Canine Parvovirus showed high outbreak regardless of the age which is classified into three stages, 35~50 day, 60 day and 75~day to 1 year, canine distemper virus appeared increased, but in case of Staphylococcus aureus, visa versa. 6. In comparison wi methods for the laboratory diagnosis diagnosis parvovirus, Hemagglutination test showed positive reaction in 25% and mean serum antibody titer measured by Hemagglutination inhibition test showed 2779 (n=20). In addition, positive reaction was 90% (18/20). 7. In histopathological studies, enteritic and pneumonic lesions were indicated in 53.7% and 39.5% of samples, respectively. 8. Etiologic diagnosis based on the history taking, clinical signs and histopathological findings in puppies with acute diarrhea and vomiting indicated that 50% of puppies were infected by canine parvovirus and distemper virus. 9. In the parasitological examination made by simple flotation with saturated zinc sulfate tour parasites found were Isospora canis, Toxocara canis, Ancylostoma spp and Toxocara spp. Isospora canis and Toxocara canis were more frequently found among those parasites of diarrhoeic causes in puppies ranged from 35 days to 1 year. Their infestation rates were 15% and 13% respectively.