• The Korean Journal of Air & Space Law and Policy
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• v.30 no.2
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• pp.469-497
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• 2015

In 2009 Iridium 33, a satellite owned by the American Iridium Communications Inc. and Kosmos-2251, a satellite owned by the Russian Space Forces, collided at a speed of 42,120 km/h and an altitude of 789 kilometers above the Taymyr Peninsula in Siberia. NASA estimated that the satellite collision had created approximately 1,000 pieces of debris larger than 10 centimeters, in addition to many smaller ones. By July 2011, the U.S. Space Surveillance Network(SSN) had catalogued over 2,000 large debris fragments. On January 11, 2007 China conducted a test on its anti-satellite missile. A Chinese weather satellite, the FY-1C polar orbit satellite, was destroyed by the missile that was launched using a multistage solid-fuel. The test was unprecedented for having created a record amount of debris. At least 2,317 pieces of trackable size (i.e. of golf ball size or larger) and an estimated 150,000 particles were generated as a result. As far as the Space Treaties such as 1967 Outer Space Treaty, 1968 Rescue Agreement, 1972 Liability Convention, 1975 Registration Convention and 1979 Moon Agreement are concerned, few provisions addressing the space environment and debris in space can be found. In the early years of space exploration dating back to the late 1950s, the focus of international law was on the establishment of a basic set of rules on the activities undertaken by various states in outer space.. Consequently environmental issues, including those of space debris, did not receive the priority they deserve when international space law was originally drafted. As shown in the case of the 1978 "Cosmos 954 Incident" between Canada and USSR, the two parties settled it by the memorandum between two nations not by the Space Treaties to which they are parties. In 1994 the 66th conference of International Law Association(ILA) adopted "International Instrument on the Protection of the Environment from Damage Caused by Space Debris". The Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee(IADC) issued some guidelines for the space debris which were the basis of "the UN Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines" which had been approved by the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space(COPUOS) in its 527th meeting. On December 21 2007 this guideline was approved by UNGA Resolution 62/217. The EU has proposed an "International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities" as a transparency and confidence-building measure. It was only in 2010 that the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee began considering as an agenda item the long-term sustainability of outer space. A Working Group on the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities was established, the objectives of which include identifying areas of concern for the long-term sustainability of outer space activities, proposing measures that could enhance sustainability, and producing voluntary guidelines to reduce risks to long-term sustainability. By this effort "Guidelines on the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities" are being under consideration. In the case of "Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exp1oration and Use of Outer Space" adopted by UNGA Resolution 1962(XVIII), December 13 1963, the 9 principles proclaimed in that Declaration, although all of them incorporated in the Space Treaties, could be regarded as customary international law binding all states considering the time and opinio juris by the responses of the world. Although the soft law such as resolutions, guidelines are not binding law, there are some provisions which have a fundamentally norm-creating character and customary international law. In November 12 1974 UN General Assembly recalled through a Resolution 3232(XXIX) "Review of the role of International Court of Justice" that the development of international law may be reflected, inter alia, by the declarations and resolutions of the General Assembly which may to that extend be taken into consideration by the judgements of the International Court of Justice. We are expecting COPUOS which gave birth 5 Space Treaties that it could give us binding space debris mitigation measures to be implemented based on space debris mitigation soft law in the near future.

• Journal of Climate Change Research
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• v.3 no.2
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• pp.117-128
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• 2012

The Government of South Korea has continued its effort to fixate virtuous circle of economic growth and climate change response to cope with international demands and pressure to commitment for greenhouse gas reduction effectively. Nationally, Korean Government has established "Enforcement of the Framework Act on Low carbon, Green Growth"(2010. 4. 13) to implement national mid-term GHG mitigation goal(30% reduction by 2020 compare to BAU), which established the foundation for phased GHG mitigation by setting up the sectoral and industrial goal, adopting GHG and Energy Target Management System. Also, follow-up measures are taken such as planning and control of mid-term and short-term mitigation target by detailed analysis of potential mitigation of sector and industry, building up the infrastructure for periodic and systematic analysis of target management. Likewise, it is required to establish more accurate, reliable and detailed sectoral GHG inventory for successfully establishment and implement the frame act. In comparison to the $CO_2$ emission, Especially fluorinated greenhouse gases (HFCs, PFCs, $SF_6$) are lacking research to build the greenhouse gas inventories to identify emissions sources and collection of the applicable collection activities data. In this study, with the refrigeration and air conditioning sector being used to fluorine refrigerant(HFCs) as the center, greenhouse gas emission estimation methodology for evaluating the feasibility of using this methodology look over and mobile air conditioning, fixed air conditioning, household refrigeration equipment, commercial refrigeration equipment for the greenhouse gas emissions were calculated. First look at in terms of methodology, refrigeration and air conditioning sector GHG emissions in developing country-specific emission factors and activity data of the industrial sector the construction of the DB is not enough, it's 2006 IPCC Guidelines Tier 2a (emission factor approach) rather than the Tier 2b (mass balance approach) deems appropriate, and each detail by process, sectoral activity data more accurate, if DB is built Tier 2a (emission factor approach) can be applied will also be judged. Refrigeration and air conditioning sector in 2009 due to the use of refrigerant greenhouse gas emissions ($CO_2eq.$) assessment results, portable air conditioner 1,974,646 ton to year, fixed-mount air conditioner 1,011,754 ton to year, household refrigeration unit 4,396 ton to year, commercial refrigeration equipment 1,263 ton to year was estimated to total 2,992,037 tons.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Hazard Mitigation
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• v.8 no.6
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• pp.37-45
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• 2008

It is expected that conditions of water resources will be changed in Korea in accordance with world wide climate change. In order to deal with this problem and find a way of minimizing the effect of future climate change, the usefulness of climate model simulation information is examined in this study. The objective of this study is to assess the applicability of GCM (General Circulation Model) information for Korean water resources management through uncertainty analysis. The methods are based on probabilistic measures of the effectiveness of GCM simulations of an indicator variable for discriminating high versus low regional observations of a target variable. The formulation uses the significance probability of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for detecting differences between two variables. An estimator that accounts for climate model simulation and spatial association between the GCM data and observed data is used. Atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) simulations done by ECMWF (European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts) with a resolution of $2^{\circ}{\times}2^{\circ}$, and METRI (Meteorological Research Institute, Korea) with resolutions of $2^{\circ}{\times}2^{\circ}$ and $4^{\circ}{\times}5^{\circ}$, were used for indicator variables, while observed mean areal precipitation (MAP) data, discharge data and mean areal temperature data on the seven major river basins in Korea were used for target variables. The results show that GCM simulations are useful in discriminating the high from the low of the observed precipitation, discharge, and temperature values. Temperature especially can be useful regardless of model and season.

• KSCE Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering Research
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• v.37 no.6
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• pp.1017-1023
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• 2017

Duration induced by freeway crashes has a critical influence on traffic congestion. In general, crash duration composes detection and verification, response, and clearance time. Of these, the crash clearance time determined by a crash clearance team has attracted considerable attention in the freeway congestion management since the interest of the first two time stages faded away with increasing ubiquitous mobile phone users. The objective of this study is to identify the critical factors that affect freeway crash clearance time using a Cox's proportional hazard model. In total, 6,870 crash duration data collected from 30 major Korean freeways in 2013 were used. As a result, it was found that crashes during the night, with trailer or larger size truck, and in tunnel section contribute to increasing clearance time. Crashes associated with fatality, completed damage of crashed vehicle (s), and vehicles' fire or rollover after crash also lead to increasing clearance time. Additionally, an increase in the number of vehicles involved resulted in longer clearance time. On the other hand, crashes in the vicinity of tollgate, by passenger car, during spring, on flat section, and of car-facility type had longer clearance time. On the basis of the results, this paper suggested some strategic plans and mitigation measures to reduce crash clearance time on Korean freeway systems.

• Atmosphere
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• v.15 no.4
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• pp.213-227
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• 2005

The global mean surface temperature has already increased by $0.6{\pm}0.2^{\circ}C$ over the last century, and warming in Korea is approximately twice as large as the global average. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that the majority of warming over the past 50 years could be attributed to human activities (IPCC, 2001a). In addition, the global surface temperature is expected to increase by 1.4 to $5.8^{\circ}C$ depending on the greenhouse gas emission scenarios during the $21^{st}$ century.Climate change resulting from increased greenhouse gas concentrations has the potential to harm societies and ecosystems. Reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases and their concentration in the atmosphere will reduce the degree and likelihood of significant adverse conditions due to the anticipated climate change. Mitigation policy has generally been the primary focus of public attention and policy efforts on climate change. However, some degree of climate change is inevitable due to the combination of continued increases in emissions and the inertia of the global climate system. Adaptation actions and strategies are needed for a complementary approach to mitigation. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) currently addresses vulnerability and adaptation in the context of climate change negotiations and in future adaptation may be an important element of work under the Kyoto Protocol. There are several on-going programs to develop effective adaptation strategies and their implementation. But in general, many other countries are still on an initiating stage. The climate change science programs of the United States, Japan, England, and Germany are initiated to understand the current status of climate change science and adaptation researches in the developed countries. In this study, we propose the improvement on systems in policy and research aspects to effectively perform the necessary functions for development of nation-wide adaptation measures and their implementation. In policy aspect, the Korean Panel on Climate Change (KPCC) is introduced as a coordinating mechanism between government organizations related with climate change science, impact assessment and adaptation. Also in research aspect, there is a strong consensus on the need for construction of a national network on climate change research as trans-disciplinary research network.

• Journal of The Korean Society of Agricultural Engineers
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• v.62 no.2
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• pp.97-109
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• 2020

Drought is one of the most influential disasters in sustainable agriculture and food security of nations. In order to preemptively respond to agricultural droughts, vulnerability assessments were conducted to predict the possibility of drought in the region, the degree of direct or indirect damage, and the ability to cope with the damage. Information on agricultural drought vulnerability status of different regions is extremely useful for implementation of long term drought management measures. The purpose of this study is to develop and implement a quantitative approach for measuring agricultural drought vulnerability at sub-district level based on agricultural water and reservoirs. To assess the vulnerability in a quantitative manner and also to deal with different physical and socioeconomic data on the occurrence of agricultural drought, we selected the appropriate factors for the assessment of agricultural drought vulnerability through preceding studies, and analyzed the meteorological and agricultural reservoir data from 2015 to 2018. Each item was weighted using AHP (Analytic Hierarchy Process) analysis and evaluated through the agricultural drought vulnerability estimation. The entire national vulnerability assessments showed that Ganghwa, Naju, and Damyang were the most vulnerable to agricultural droughts. As a result of analyzing spatial expression, Gyeongsang-do is relatively more vulnerable to drought than Gangwon-do and Gyeonggi-do. The results revealed that the methodology and evaluation items achieved good performance in drought response. In addition, vulnerability assessments based on agricultural reservoir are expected to contribute supporting effective drought decisions in the field of agricultural water management.

• Journal of Animal Environmental Science
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• v.17 no.sup
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• pp.1-6
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• 2011

Korean Government announced 'The Roadmap to realize a low carbon green society on year 2020' on July 12, 2011 in order to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Non-energy category of Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery (FAFF) should mitigate 1,349 kilo $CO_2$-equivalent ($CO_2$-eq.) tonnes which is 7.1% of Business-As-Usual on year 2020. The mitigation from animal manure treatment system (AMTS) comprises ca. 45% of the total mitigated amount of Non-energy category of FAFF. Hence, the precise evaluation of GHG emissions from AMTS is important to find effective mitigation measures. Life cycle assessment was used to evaluate GHG emissions from AMTS. The most GHG emitter was a composting/liquid fertilizer/activated sludge system (1,649.45 kg $CO_2$-eq./head/year) and the least GHG emitter was a activated liquid fertilizer system (1,024.46 kg $CO_2$-eq./head/year). Thermophilic oxic process showed the highest ratio (34.9%) of GHG emissions by the use of electricity to total GHG emissions from systems. Energy efficiency should be considered to mitigate GHG emissions from AMTS.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Hazard Mitigation
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• v.6 no.4 s.23
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• pp.37-47
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• 2006

Urban development results in increased runoff volume and flowrates and shortening in time of concentration, which may cause frequent flooding downstream. Flow retardation structures to limit adverse downstream effects of urban storm runoff are used. There are various types of flow retardation measures include detention basins, retention basins, and infiltration basins. In basic planning phase, a number of planning models of detention ponds which decide storage volume by putting main variables were used to design detention ponds. The characteristics of hydrological parameters $\alpha,\;\gamma$ which are used in planning models of detention pond were analyzed. In this study, detention ponds data of Disaster Impact Assessment report at 22 sites were analyzed in order to investigate correlation between characteristic of urban drainage basin parameter and characteristics of detention pond parameter due to urbanization effects. The results showed that storage volume was influenced by peak discharge ratio $\alpha$ more than runoff coefficient ratio $\beta$ and peak discharge ratio $\alpha$ was influenced by runoff coefficient ratio $\beta$ less than regional parameter n. Storage ratio was mainly influenced by duration of design rainfall in the case of trapezoidal inflow hydrograph such as Donahue et al. method.

• Journal of Korean Tunnelling and Underground Space Association
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• v.22 no.2
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• pp.155-170
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• 2020

In this paper, a risk management system applicable to NATM tunneling projects is proposed. After investigating case histories in NATM tunnel collapse, this paper analyzes the potential risk factors and their corresponding risk events during NATM tunnel construction. The risk factors are categorized into three groups: geological, design and construction risk factors. The risk events are also categorized into four types: excessive deformation, excessive deformation with subsidence, collapse inside tunnels, and collapse inside tunnels with subsidence. The paper identifies risk scenarios in consideration of the risk factors and proposes a risk analysis/evaluation method for the NATM tunnel risk scenarios. Based on the evaluation results, the optimal mitigation measure to handle the risk events is suggested. In order to effectively facilitate a series of risk management processes, it is necessary to develop a risk register and a management ledger for risk mitigation measures that are customized to NATM tunnels. Lastly, the risk management for an actual NATM tunnel construction site is performed to verify the validity of the proposed system.

• Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society
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• v.16 no.5
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• pp.3518-3524
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• 2015

Spatial and time variation of the precipitation in Korea is high, therefore, more than 2/3 of the annual precipitation is concentrated during the rainy season. Climate change also causes the intensive rainfall in the area of dense population, thus the occurrence frequency of the heavy flood in the impervious area has been increased. Therefore, the structural food mitigation measures such as the construction of the higher design frequency stormwater pipes, pumping stations, and/or detention ponds. The flood bypass tunnel or retention storage is also one of the efficient structures to mitigate flood damage in the urban area. However, the economic feasibility has been controversial because the flood bypass tunnel might be used once or twice a year. To solve the problem, the multi-functional tunnel for the urban traffic and flooding bypass has been considered. In this study, the design criteria of the road and water tunnel has been analysed and the composite design criteria is proposed for the multi-functional tunnel which is expected to be constructed.