• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제46권5호
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• pp.690-699
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• 2022

Background: Few studies reported the therapeutic effect of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) in lung inflammatory diseases. However, the anti-inflammatory role and underlying molecular in cadmium-induced lung injury have been poorly understood, directly linked to chronic lung diseases (CLDs): chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cancer etc. Therefore, in this study we aim to investigate the therapeutic activities of water extract of KRG (KRG-WE) in mouse cadmium-induced lung injury model. Method: The anti-inflammatory roles and underlying mechanisms of KRG-WE were evaluated in vitro under cadmium-stimulated lung epithelial cells (A549) and HEK293T cell line and in vivo in cadmium-induced lung injury mouse model using semi-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), luciferase assay, immunoblotting, and FACS. Results: KRG-WE strongly ameliorated the symptoms of CdSO4-induced lung injury in mice according to total cell number in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and severity scores as well as cytokine levels. KRG-WE significantly suppressed the upregulation of inflammatory signaling comprising mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and their upstream enzymes. In in vitro study, KRG-WE suppressed expression of interleukin (IL)-6, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, and IL-8 while promoting recovery in CdSO₄-treated A549 cells. Similarly, KRG-WE reduced phosphorylation of MAPK and c-Jun/c-Fos in cadmium-exposed A549 cells. Conclusion: KRG-WE was found to attenuate symptoms of cadmium-induced lung injury and reduce the expression of inflammatory genes by suppression of MAPK/AP-1-mediated pathway.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제23권4호
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• pp.247-256
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• 1999

Ginseng has been used in maintaining physical vitality throughout the far-eastern countries and recently its metabolism and actions on neurologic, cardiovascular, and endocrinologic systems are studied. Korean red ginseng (KRG) has been used in various ailments, and to prove its efficacy for erectile dysfunction an international study on Asians other than Korean was performed. Patients with borderline organic and psychogenic erectile dysfunction were included. KRG were given daily, and placebo were given as controls. Treatment lasted a total of 3 months. Surveys including libido, erection, ejaculation, sexual activity, and sexual satisfaction were given. Serum testosterone and erectile function study were taken. Among the 64 patients, 37 patients were followed with KRG. Five had diabetes, 5 hypertension, 5 hypercholesterolemia, 6 low testosterone, 6 psychogenic, and 11 idiopathic. The improvement after KRG administration was $70.2\%$ on objective questionnaire and $75.7\%$ on subjective analysis. When KRG were given, all parameters surveyed have shown improvements compared to the placebo. The effects of KRG in Chinese and Singapores were similar to the Koreans. Serum testosterone levels were nonnalized in 6 patients with KRG, who's serum testosterone levels were reduced from pre-study. Two patient reported constipation, and 2 gastric upsets in the KRG group. In conclusion, KRG has beneficiary action on male erectile capabilities with little side effects. KRG is effective in Koreans and also Asians. The exact action mechanism and the active ingredients in KRG need to be studied.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제35권2호
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• pp.219-225
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• 2011

Korean red ginseng (KRG) is a valuable and important traditional medicine in East Asian countries and is currently used extensively for botanical products in the world. KRG has both stimulatory and inhibitory effects on the central nervous system (CNS) suggesting its complicated action mechanisms. The substantia gelatinosa (SG) neurons of the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis (Vc) are involved in orofacial nociceptive processing. Some studies reported that KRG has antinociceptive effects, but there are few reports of the functional studies of KRG on the SG neurons of the Vc. In this study, a whole cell patch clamp study was performed to examine the action mechanism of a KRG extract on the SG neurons of the Vc from juvenile mice. KRG induced short-lived and repeatable inward currents on all the SG neurons tested in the high chloride pipette solution. The KRG-induced inward currents were concentration dependent and were maintained in the presence of tetrodotoxin, a voltage gated $Na^+$ channel blocker. The KRG-induced inward currents were suppressed by 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione, a non-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor antagonist and/or picrotoxin, a gamma-aminobutyric acid $(GABA)_A$ receptor antagonist. However, the inward currents were not suppressed by d,l-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid, an NMDA receptor antagonist. These results show that KRG has excitatory effects on the SG neurons of the Vc via the activation of non-NMDA glutamate receptor as well as an inhibitory effect by activation of the $GABA_A$ receptor, indicating the KRG has both stimulatory and inhibitory effects on the CNS. In addition, KRG may be a potential target for modulating orofacial pain processing.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제44권3호
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• pp.519-526
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• 2020

Background: Bisphenol A (BPA), known as an endocrine disruptor, is widely used in the world. BPA is reported to cause inflammation-related diseases. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) has been used safely in human for a long time for the treatment of diverse diseases. KRG has been reported of its mitigating effect on menopausal symptoms and suppress adipose inflammation. Here, we investigate the protective effect of orally administered KRG on the impacts of BPA in the liver and uterus of menopausal mice model. Methods: The transcriptome analysis for the effects of BPA on mice liver was evaluated by Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database-based data (GSE26728). In vivo assay to evaluate the protective effect of KRG on BPA impact in ovariectomized (OVX) mice were designed and analyzed by RNA sequencing. Results: We first demonstrated that BPA induced 12 kinds of gene set in the liver of normal mice. The administration of BPA and KRG did not change body, liver, and uterine weight in OVX mice. KRG downregulated BPA-induced inflammatory response and chemotaxis-related gene expression. Several gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA)-derived inflammatory response genes increased by BPA were inhibited by KRG in OVX mice. Conclusion: Our data suggest that BPA has commonly influenced inflammatory response effects on both normal and OVX mice. KRG protects against BPA impact of inflammatory response and chemotaxis in OVX mouse models. Our comparative analysis will provide new insight into the efficacy of KRG on endocrine disrupting chemicals and OVX mouse.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제45권1호
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• pp.191-198
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• 2021

Background: Most clinical studies of immune responses activated by Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) have been conducted exclusively in patients. However, there is still a lack of clinical research on immune-boosting benefits of KRG for healthy persons. This study aims to confirm how KRG boosts the immune system of healthy subjects. Methods: A total of 100 healthy adult subjects were randomly divided into two groups that took either a 2 g KRG tablet or a placebo per day for 8 weeks. The primary efficacy evaluation variables included changes in T cells, B cells, and white blood cells (WBCs) before and after eight weeks of KRG ingestion. Cytokines (TNF-α, INF-γ, IL-2 and IL-4), WBC differential count, and incidence of colds were measured in the secondary efficacy evaluation variables. Safety evaluation variables were used to identify changes in laboratory test results that incorporated adverse reactions, vital signs, hematological tests, blood chemistry tests, and urinalysis. Results: Compared to the placebo group, the KRG intake group showed a significant increase in the number of T cells (CD3) and its subtypes (CD4 and CD8), B cells, and the WBC count before and after eight weeks of the intake. There were no clinically significant adverse reactions or other notable results in the safety evaluation factors observed. Conclusion: This study has proven through its eight-week intake test and subsequent analysis that KRG boosts the immune system through an increase in T cells, B cells, and WBCs, and that it is safe according to the study's safety evaluation.

• 고려인삼학회:학술대회논문집
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• 고려인삼학회 1998년도 Advances in Ginseng Research - Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Ginseng -
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• pp.208-215
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• 1998

Ginseng has been used in maintaining physical vitality all over the East Asian countries and recently its metabolism and actions on neurologic, cardiovascular and endocrinologic systems are being elucidated. Korean red ginseng (KRG) has been used in various aliments, and to prove its efficacy icy erectile dysfunction an international study on Asians other than Korean was performed. Patients with borderline organic and psychogenic erectile dysfunction were included. KRG were given daily, and placebos were given as controls. Treatment lasted a total of 3 months. Surveys including libido, erectile potency, the sexual satisfactions were given. Serum testosterone and erectile function study were taken. Among the 23 patients with KRG, 18 patients were followed. Four had diabetes, 2 hypertension, 3 hyperchole, iterolemia, 1 low testosterone,4 psychogenic, and 4 idiopathic. In 10 patients with placebo, 7 were followed for more than three months. The clinical efficacy of KRG was 66.7% on objective Questionnaire and 72.2% on subjective analysis. When KRG were given, all parameters surveyed have shown improvements compared to the controls. Serum testosterone Bevels were normalized in 2 patients with KRG, whose serum testosterone levels were reduced from prestudy. When the erectile functions after audiovisual stimuli evaluated using Rigiscan in 6 patients with KRG,4 showed rigidity move than 70oyc. One patient reported constipation, and 2 gastric up-sets in the KRG group. In conclusion, KRG has beneficiary action on male erectile capabilities with minimal side effects. Thus KRG has been proven effective in Koreans, and a result on other Asians is pending. The exact action mechanism and the active ingredients in KRC need to be itudied.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제43권4호
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• pp.684-691
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• 2019

Background: We have reported that defective nef and gag genes are induced in HIV-1-infected patients treated with Korean Red Ginseng (KRG). Methods: To investigate whether KRG treatment and highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) affect genetic defects in the pol gene, we amplified and sequenced a partial pol gene (p-pol) containing the integrase portion (1.2 kb) by nested PCR with sequential peripheral blood mononuclear cells over 20 years and compared it with those patients at baseline, in control patients, those taking ginseng-based combination therapy (GCT; KRG plus combinational antiretroviral therapy) and HAART alone. We also compared our findings to look for the full-length pol gene (pol) (3.0-kb) Results: Twenty-patients infected with subtype B were treated with KRG for $116{\pm}58months$ in the absence of HAART. Internal deletion in the pol gene (${\Delta}pol$) was significantly higher in the KRG group (11.9%) than in the control group and at baseline; its detection was significantly inhibited during GCT as much as during HAART. In addition, the ${\Delta}pol$ in p-pol significantly depended on the duration of KRG treatment. In pol, the proportion of ${\Delta}pol$ was significantly higher in the KRG group (38.7%) than in the control group, and it was significantly inhibited during GCT and HAART. In contrast, the proportion of stop codon appeared not to be affected by KRG treatment. The PCR success rate was significantly decreased with longer GCT. Conclusion: The proportion of ${\Delta}pol$ depends on template size as well as KRG treatment. HAART decreases the detection of ${\Delta}pol$.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제47권4호
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• pp.583-592
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• 2023

Background: Alcohol is one of the most commonly used psychoactive drugs. Due to its addictive characteristics, many people struggle with the side effects of alcohol. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a traditional herbal medicine that is widely used to treat various health problems. However, the effects and mechanisms of KRG in alcohol-induced responses remain unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of KRG in alcohol-induced responses. Methods: We investigated two aspects: alcohol-induced addictive responses and spatial working memory impairments. To determine the effects of KRG in alcohol-induced addictive responses, we performed conditioned place preference tests and withdrawal symptom observations. To assess the effects of KRG in alcohol-induced spatial working memory impairment, Y-maze, Barnes maze, and novel object recognition tests were performed using mice after repeated alcohol and KRG exposure. To investigate the potential mechanism of KRG activity, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and western blot analysis were performed. Results: KRG-treated mice showed dose-dependent restoration of impaired spatial working memory following repeated alcohol exposure. Furthermore, withdrawal symptoms to alcohol were reduced in mice treated with KRG and alcohol. The PKA-CREB signaling pathway was activated after alcohol administration, which was reduced by KRG. However, the levels of inflammatory cytokines were increased by alcohol and decreased by KRG. Conclusion: Taken together, KRG may alleviate alcohol-induced spatial working memory impairments and addictive responses through anti-neuroinflammatory activity rather than through the PKA-CREB signaling pathway.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제47권6호
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• pp.766-772
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• 2023

Background: Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is an effective anti-stress treatment. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic potential effects of KRG on relieving stress in a general population using transcriptome analysis. Methods: We conducted an 8-week clinical pilot study on 90 healthy men who reported stress. The study was completed by 43 participants in the KRG group and 44 participants in the placebo group. Participants were randomized 1:1 to the KRG and placebo groups. We evaluated the stress by stress response inventory (SRI) at baseline and 8 weeks. The main outcomes were changes in the levels of neurotransmitters (NTs) and NT-related gene expression. NTs were analyzed using automated (GC) content, and levels of gene expression were measured by reads per kilobase of transcript per million mapped reads (RPKM). Results: The KRG group showed significantly preserved epinephrine decrease compared with placebo group at 8 weeks (changes in epinephrine, KRG vs. placebo; -1623.2 ± 46101.5 vs. -35116.3 ± 86288.2, p = 0012). Among subjects who higher SRI score, meaning stress increased compared to baseline, the KRG group showed a smaller decrease in serotonin than the placebo group (changes in serotonin, KRG vs. placebo; -2627.5 ± 5859.1 vs, -8087.4 ± 7162.4, p = 0.005) and a smaller increase in cortisol than the placebo group (changes in cortisol, KRG vs. placebo; 1912.7 ± 10097.75 vs. 8046.2 ± 8050.6 , p = 0.019) in subgroup analysis. Transcriptome findings indicated that KRG intake affects gene expression related with metabolism of choline, adrenalin, and monoamine. Conclusion: These findings suggest that KRG has beneficial effects on the amelioration of stress response in NTs, and this effect is more prominent in stressful situations. Further clinical studies are required to confirm the anti-stress effect of KRG.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제40권2호
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• pp.169-175
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• 2016

Background: Chemotherapy-induced alopecia (CIA) is one of the most distressing side effects for patients undergoing chemotherapy. This study evaluated the protective effect of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) on CIA in a well-established in vitro human hair follicle organ culture model as it occurs in vivo. Methods: We examined whether KRG can prevent premature hair follicle dystrophy in a human hair follicle organ culture model during treatment with a key cyclophosphamide metabolite, 4-hydroperoxycyclophosphamide (4-HC). Results: 4-HC inhibited human hair growth, induced premature catagen development, and inhibited proliferation and stimulated apoptosis of hair matrix keratinocytes. In addition, 4-HC increased p53 and Bax protein expression and decreased Bcl2 protein expression. Pretreatment with KRG protected against 4-HC-induced hair growth inhibition and premature catagen development. KRG also suppressed 4-HC-induced inhibition of matrix keratinocyte proliferation and stimulation of matrix keratinocyte apoptosis. Moreover, KRG restored 4-HC-induced p53 and Bax/Bcl2 expression. Conclusion: Overall, our results indicate that KRG may protect against 4-HC-induced premature catagen development through modulation of p53 and Bax/Bcl2 expression.