• Ocean and Polar Research
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• 제27권1호
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• pp.97-108
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• 2005

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) formally came into existence upon the entry into force of the UNCLOS on 16 November 1994. By adopting the Implementing Agreement in 1994, UNCLOS has the universality as a Magna Carta of International Ocean Regime, and the Deep Seabed Mining Regime could be operated as a unique one for the benefit of mankind. During last 10 years, ISA established the institutional framework successfully and made substantial and tangible progress in formulating the rules, regulations and procedures for the prospecting and exploration for polymetally nodules. Furthermore, RPI's obligations had been carried out completely, and the 7 RPI made contract with ISA to become a contractor who has an at least 15 you exclusive right for exploration in their allocated site. However, due to the uncertainty of commercial mining, the number of representatives from developing countries has been getting looser and looser and ISA has a problem of quorum of the Assembly. Land-based producers took a very strong opposite position to the contractors to make their loss in the minimum level. For the next decade, it might be prospected that ISA will focus on monitoring the contractor's activities, making rules, regulations and procedures for exploration on cobalt rich crust, sulphide and methane hydrate and implementing environment studies.

• 해양환경안전학회:학술대회논문집
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• 해양환경안전학회 2017년도 추계학술발표회
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• pp.279-279
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• 2017

• Ocean and Polar Research
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• 제33권4호
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• pp.485-495
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• 2011

On February 11, 2011, upon request of the International Seabed Authority, 'the Seabed Dispute Chamber of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea(henceforth Chamber)' rendered its advisory opinion on the responsibilities and obligations of States sponsoring persons and entities with respect to activities in the Area. The advisory opinion covered three questions: What are the legal responsibilities and obligations of the sponsoring states with respect to the sponsorship of activities in the Area? What is the extent of liability of a State Party for any failure to comply with the LOS Convention and relevant instruments? What are the necessary and appropriate measures that a sponsoring State must take in order to fulfil its responsibilities? In particular, the Chamber delivered its opinion on the different responsibilities and obligations of developed and developing sponsoring states. This paper reviews the above three questions through analyzing the advisory opinion and makes some recommendations for the fulfillment of the responsibilities and obligations of Korea as a sponsoring states.

• Ocean and Polar Research
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• 제37권1호
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• pp.81-90
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• 2015

International Seabed Authority (ISA) is currently developing rules with regard to exploitation of manganese nodules which will be contained in its first regulations governing the exploitation of deep seabed mineral resources. A stakeholder survey was conducted in the early 2014 by ISA with the aim of facilitating participation of interested entities in the development process of the rules. The stakeholders who had replied to the survey included existing contractors, sponsoring States, environmentalists, academics, and nongovernmental organizations. Opinions given by them largely reflect their own interests. This paper aims to clarify the scope of the obligations regarding the environmental protection which may be imposed on contractors under the new regulations for the exploitation of manganese nodules. To do so, it first analyses the express provisions on environmental protection applicable to deep seabed mining included in the Law of the Sea Convention, its agreement on implementation of Part XI, and the regulations on exploration for manganese nodules. Secondly, it categorizes these obligations based on the categories of international obligations suggested by Combacau and Alland. Based on the categorizations this paper concludes that, in addition to the existing duties to protect deep seabed environment within the Law of the Sea Convention system, the following new obligations could be added: conservation of exploitation sites for a limited time after the contract is ceased; taking all necessary measures for rehabilitation of destroyed ecosystems that occurredas a result of mining activities; monitoring exploitation sites for a limited period time after the contract is ceased; observing rules and standards on safety of ships and environmental protection adopted under IMO instruments; regulation on the discharge of mine tailings from the facilities used for exploitation of deep sea minerals. Lastly, this paper attempts to provide ways of reflecting national interests in terms of potential obligations which may be included in the new regulations.

• Ocean and Polar Research
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• 제25권2호
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• pp.227-235
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• 2003

In August 1998, during the resumed fourth session of the Authority, the delegation of the Russian Federation reminded the Assembly that, in addition to polymetallic nodules, other mineral resources existed in the Area, including polymetallic sulphides and cobalt crusts, and requested the Authority to adopt rules, regulations and procedures for exploration for such resources. Pursuant to article 162, para. 2(o)(ii), of the 1982 UNCLOS, such rules, regulations and procedures are to be adopted within three years of the date of such a request. This article reviewed the 'Draft Rules and Regulations for the Exploration and Exploitation of Sea-Floor Massive Sulphides and Cobat-rich Ferromanganese Crusts in the Area' by ISA in 2001, and the 'Madang Guideline for Offshore Mineral Policy' written in 1999 in respect of the international trends of polymetallic sulphides and cobalt crusts. Issues for size of mining area and relinquishment, application of the site-banking system, procedure for dealing with overlapping claims and precautionary approach etc. for the establishment of the norm of polymetallic sulphides and cobalt crusts are reviewed as consideration factors.

• 자원환경지질
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• 제46권6호
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• pp.569-580
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• 2013

서태평양 해저산 사면에 부존하는 고코발트 망간각은 코발트, 니켈, 백금, 희유금속 등을 다량 함유하고 있으며, 최근 국제해저기구에서 공해상 탐사규칙이 제정됨에 따라 개발 대상으로 더욱 주목받고 있다. 해저산에 분포하는 망간각의 개발을 위해서는 경사가 낮고 지형기복이 완만하여 채광에 유리한 지형조건을 갖추면서 망간각이 두껍게 분포하는 유망지역을 선별하여야 한다. 따라서 광역단계의 망간각 탐사는 음향 수심탐사를 통한 지형 및 경사도의 확인, 음향산란 자료의 획득을 통한 기저면 표층 매질 분포 파악, 그리고 해저면 영상 관찰과 시료채취를 통한 망간각의 분포 두께 파악이 필요하다. 또한 음향산란 자료를 이용하여 망간각 분포 지역을 확인하기 위해서는 영상관찰 및 시료 채취를 통한 망간각 음향매질 특성분석이 필요하다. 기존의 탐사를 통해 수행된 망간각 기초탐사 자료를 분석한 결과 해저산 지형 해석과 망간각 광역분포와 같은 망간각 유망지역 선별을 위한 일부 자료를 확인할 수 있었다. 하지만, 음향산란 자료를 확보하지 못하여 넓은 탐사지역을 대상으로 망간각 부존 유망지역을 선별하는 데 필요한 망간각 분포 변화는 파악하지 못하였다. 따라서 향후 탐사는 망간각 탐사후보 지역을 대상으로 음향산란 자료의 확보가 선행되어야 하며, 해저면 관찰 및 시료채취를 병행하여 해저면 음향매질 특성과 망간각 분포의 상관성을 파악하기 위한 탐사가 수행되어야 한다.

• Ocean and Polar Research
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• 제36권4호
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• pp.367-371
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• 2014

In early 1990s, the Korean government has launched a deep-sea research program to secure the stable long-term supply of strategic metallic minerals including Cr, Cu and Ni. Through the pioneering surveys, Korea registered $150,000km^2$ of Mn-nodule field in the Clarion-Clipperton area, the NE equatorial Pacific to the international sea-bed authority (ISA) in 1994. Following the ISA exploration code, the final exclusive exploration area of $75,000km^2$ was assigned in 2002, based on results of eight-year researches of chemico-physical properties of nodules, bottom profiles and sediment properties. Since that time, environmental studies, mining technical developments including robot miner and lifting system and establishment of smelting systems were accompanied with the detailed geophysical studies to decipher the priori mining area until 2009. Major points of the recent Korea Mn-nodule program are deployed on a commercial scale until 2015. In order to meet the goals, we developed a 1/5 scaled robot miner compared to commercial one in 2012 and performed a mining test at the water depth of 1,370 m in 2013. In addition, detailed 25,000 scaled mining maps in the priori area, which can provide operation roots of the miner, will be prepared and an environmental-friendly mining strategy will be pursued based on the environmental impact test and environmental monitoring.

• Ocean and Polar Research
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• 제45권1호
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• pp.11-22
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• 2023

For the commercial development of deep-sea mineral resources, the International Seabed Authority is engaged in wide ranging discussions to establish the Regulations on Exploitation. The core issue of the Regulations on Exploitation is how to protect the marine environment along with the royalty system that distributes the profits from such development. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea stipulates the protection of the marine environment in Part 12 (Articles 192-237) for the preservation of the marine environment, and in the 1994 Implementation Agreement, the protection of the marine environment at the stage of application for approval of the plan of work together with the Regulations on Exploration for the protection of the marine environment. For this purpose, certain obligations are imposed on the applicants. In the Regulations on Exploitation, financial systems such as environmental performance guarantee, insurance, and environmental compensation funds, which were not found in the Regulations on Exploration, are added to further specify the measures for marine environment protection generally stipulated in the 1982 Law of the Convention or 1994 Implementation Agreement. Regarding the financial system for marine environment protection, the Marine Environmental Protection and Conservation Informal Working Group meeting is revising the purpose of the environmental compensation fund. Among these financial system elements, it is judged that there is a possibility that the environmental performance guarantee and insurance may overlap considerably, and it is also thought that the establishment of the environmental compensation fund can also provide a substantial sum of money that will meet the purpose of the compensation fund in terms of securing its financial resources. In this paper, the question is posed as to whether or not this can be accomplished. In this respect, this paper examines the environmental performance guarantee, insurance, and environmental compensation fund, which are necessary for the protection of the marine environment of the deep seabed, but which can impose appropriate obligations on contractors for the commercial development of deep seabed mineral resources. At the same time as figuring out how it is operated in relation to relevant domestic laws, I would like to propose a plan to reflect the implications derived from the domestic law operation process in the Regulations on Exploitation.

• 항공우주정책ㆍ법학회지
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• 제33권2호
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• pp.35-59
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• 2018

미국의 2015년 "상업적 우주발사 경쟁력 법"(CSLCA)나 2017년 룩셈부르크의 우주자원의 탐사 및 활용에 관한 법에서 명시된 바와 같이 자국민은 물론 타국이 운영하는 기업에게도 우주자원의 상업적 탐사와 이용할 수 있도록 허용하는 조항은 우주조약(OST) 제2조 및 달협정(MA) 제11조 2항의 우주 및 천체의 비전유원칙에 위반되는 조항인가 하는 점이 중요한 문제이다. CSLCA는 이 법에 의해 특정 천체에 대한 주권이나 점유권, 사법권을 주장하거나 소유를 주장할 수 없다고 분명하게 명시하고 있다. OST 제2조의 비전유원칙에 의하여 달과 다른 천체들이 무주지(res nullius)에서 국제공역(res extra commmercium)으로 전환되는 법적 지위를 가짐으로써 우주와 천체는 마치 공해와 같이 각 국가가 이곳을 전유할 수는 없으나, 이곳의 자원을 자유롭게 이용할 수 있게 되었다. 그러면 OST 제2조의 비전유원칙은 비당사국도 구속하는 조항인가 하는 점인데 다수의 학자들은 동 원칙은 국제조약상 규범은 물론 모든 국가들을 구속하는 국제관습법으로 심지어는 강행규범(jus cogens)으로 발전된 조항이라고 보고 있는데 필자도 이에 동의하는 바이다. 우주 및 천체의 지위가 마치 해양법상 공해에 적용되는 res extra commmercium이기 때문에 어느 국가나 사기업 또는 개인이 우주 및 천체의 비전유원칙을 존중하는 한 그곳의 사용 및 수익행위를 할 수 있다면 우주 및 천체에 접근하지 못하는 국가나 개인 또는 사기업체들은 후발주자로서 손해를 크게 보게 될 것이고 이렇게 방치될 경우 우주개발국의 무제한의 우주자원채취는 우주자원이 고갈되는 상태를 불러일으킬 것이 분명하다. 이를 극복하기 위하여 인류공동유산(CHM)개념이 도입된 MA가 등장한 것인데, 심지어 MA 제정에 참가한 국가들마저 동 협정의 조약당사국이 되기를 꺼려하고 있는 것이 현실이다. 우주와 천체가 마치 공해와 같이 각 국가가 이곳을 전유할 수는 없으나, 이곳의 자원을 자유롭게 이용할 수 있게 되는 곳이라면 만일 미국의 어느 기업체가 미국의 승인을 얻어 달의 일부 중 가장 좋은 지점을 확보하고 자원을 수집할 때, 타국 기업체도 이에 접근할 수 있는가? 그리고 일정지역이란 달에서 어느 정도 크기의 영역인가? 그리고 얼마동안 수집할 것인가? 현재 국제우주법체계에서는 '선착순의 원리'(first come, first served)에 따라 이를 허용하는 수밖에 없을 것이다. 따라서 이제 국제공동체는 국가들의 우주활동 중 예견되는 분쟁해결을 위한 국제회의를 조만간 개최하여야 하며, 조약으로 해결할 수 없는 우주법 문제들을 선언 및 결의와 같은 연성법(soft law)을 통해서라도 조속히 이 문제를 해결해야 할 것이다.