• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.19 no.3
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• pp.157-161
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• 2011

Growth characteristics, root yield and ginsenoside contents of 3-year-old ginseng in greenhouse shaded by $30^{\circ}$ sloped-curtain made of aluminum were compared to traditional shade facility in order to develop cultural practice for organic ginseng. Light transmittance ratio in greenhouse with $30^{\circ}$ sloped-curtain shade was distinctly lower than that of traditional shade from sunrise to 9 a.m., while its ratio in greenhouse was higher than traditional shade since 9 a.m. due to the reflection of light. Air temperature of greenhouse was $1.3^{\circ}C$ higher than that of traditional shade on the first ten days of August due to more reflected light. Root yield of greenhouse was 44% higher than that of traditional cultivation because of the inflow of reflected light and the decrease of disease of Alternaria and Anthracnose by blocking rainfall. Dry matter partitioning ratio of rhizome and lateral root were increased in ginseng cultivated at greenhouse due to longer survival time in leaf than traditional cultivation. Total ginsenoside contents cultivated at greenhouse was decreased in the part of taproot, while it was increased in the part of lateral and fine root compare to traditional cultivation. Individual ginsenoside contents between greenhouse and traditional cultivation showed significant difference more frequent in fine root than taproot and lateral root. Total ginsenoside contents including $Rb_1$, $Rb_2$, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, $Rg_1$, and $Rg_2$ in whole root of 3-year-old ginseng did not showed significant difference by greenhouse and traditional cultivation.

• Journal of Plant Biotechnology
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• v.33 no.2
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• pp.147-152
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• 2006

This work was carried out to establish adventitious root culture system in three Panax species (wild-grown P. ginseng, P. quinquefolium, and P. japonicum) to analyze their ginsenoside productivity. Adventitious roots were induced directly from segments of seedlings after cultured on MS(Murashige andSkoog 1962) solid medium containing 3.0 mg/l IBA. Omission of $NH_4NO_3$ from the medium greatly enhanced both the frequency of adventitious root formation and number of roots per explants in all the three Panax species. However, elongation of post-induced adventitious roots was enhanced on medium with $NH_4NO_3$. Two-step culture protocol: $NH_4NO_3$-free medium for first two weeks of culture, followed by $NH_4NO_3$ containing medium for further 4 weeks, greatly enhanced the fresh weight increase of adventitious roots in all the three ginseng species. The fresh weight of adventitious roots was high in P. quinquefolium and low in P. ginseng, followed by P. japonioum regardless of the composition of medium. Pattern and content of ginsenosides in adventitious roots differed among the three Panax species. Total ginsenoside content of adventitious roots in P. quinquefolium, P. ginseng, and p. japonicum was 8.03, 15.7 and 1.2 mg/g dry weight, respectively. Among the three speices, adventitious roots in P. quinquefolium produced hig-hamount of ginsenosides. The pattern of ginsenoside fractions between P. ginseng and P. quinquefolium was similar but the amount of ginsenoside differed between the two, While, in P japonicum, total ginsenoside content was very low and some ginsenosides such as ginsenoside Rb2 and Rf were not detected. Conclusively, we demonstrate that same culture condition was required for induction and elongation of adventitious roots of three ginseng species but growth of adventitious roots and their ginsenoside production were different among them.

• Proceedings of the Plant Resources Society of Korea Conference
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• 2020.08a
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• pp.93-93
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• 2020

본 연구는 7년, 13년근 산양삼의 생육특성과 진세노사이드(G) 함량 간의 상관관계를 구명하기 위하여 수행되었다. 6개소의 산양삼의 생육특성을 조사한 결과, 뇌두길이, 뿌리길이, 생중량, 단면적, 표면적, 부피에 있어 13년근 산양삼이 7년근 산양삼에 비하여 유의적으로 높은 것을 확인하였다. 진세노사이드11종에 대한 함량은 G-Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2 함량이 13년근 산양삼이 7년근 산양삼 보다 유의적으로 높은 수치를 확인하였다. 또한 산양삼과 인삼(재배삼) 진세노사이드 함량을 비교한 결과, 13년 산양삼에서 G-Rb1, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1이 4년, 5년근 인삼(재배삼)에 비해 유의적으로 함량이 높은 것으로 확인되었다. 산양삼 연근별 생육특성과 진세노사이드 함량 간의 상관관계를 분석한 결과, G-Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2 함량은 뇌두길이, 생중량, 단면적, 표면적, 부피와 유의정인 정의 상관관계를 보였으며, G-Rb1, Re, Rf, Rg2는 줄기직경과 부의 상관관계를 확인하였다. 본 연구는 산양삼의 7년근과 13년근을 대상으로 생육특성과 진세노사이드 함량 상관관계를 구명함으로써 연근에 따른 품질규격 정립에 유용한 정보를 제공 할 것으로 판단된다.

• Korean Journal of Plant Resources
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• v.17 no.1
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• pp.7-13
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• 2004

We have investigated the optimal conditions for the growth and ginsenoside production in adventitious root of “Chunpoong” (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer). Ginseng adventitous roots induced from the embryo of “Chunpoong” were cultured in various plant media supplemented with several growth hormones. The best growth rate and high ginsenoside contents were obtained in B5 medium supplemented with IBA (2 mg/L) and kinetin (0.1 mg/L). The supplement of 2.5 mM KH$_2$PO$_4$ was good for high growth rate of the adventitious roots, but the accumulation of ginsenosides was increased by reducing the KH$_2$PO$_4$ concentration to 1.25 mM. We have established the effective liquid culture system for the optimal growth and ginsenoside production of “Chunpoong” adventitious roots.

• Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society
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• v.16 no.11
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• pp.7794-7800
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• 2015

Ginsenosides in ginseng berry has been known as functional materials showing physiological effect to the human. Specially, ginseng berry contains plenty of ginsenoside Re, but the study of extraction processes were not enough performed. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to establish the optimized extraction process for obtaining ginsenoside Re from ginseng berry. The extraction process of ginsenosides was performed in 250 mL extraction flask containing 150 solvent and 10 g of dried ginseng berry. The extracted ginsenoside Re, Rg1 and Rd and total crude ginsenosides from ginseng berry were evaluated by TLC according to the treated conditions (the ratio of alcohol to water, extraction temperature, extraction period, and extraction times). Optimized conditions for extraction was 70% to 30% of the ratio of alcohol to water, $80^{\circ}C$ of extraction temperature, 4 h of extraction period, and 2 times of extraction frequency. The amount of total crude ginsenosides of the extract obtained from the optimized process was 88.6 mg/g based on dried ginseng berry. The composition of ginsenosides from the extracted was 5.5% of Rb1, 5.2% of Rc, 14.3% of Rd, 51.5% of Re, 8.1% of Rf, and 15.7% of Rg1. A protopanaxtriol ginsenosides of whole ginsenosides extracted was about 80%.

• Korean Journal of Plant Tissue Culture
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• v.27 no.4
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• pp.309-315
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• 2000

Panax ginseng is an important medicinal plant that has been used worldwide for geriatric, tonic, stomachic, and aphrodisiac treatments. Ginsenosides contained in the ginseng root are the main substances having active functions for human body. The price of ginseng is very expensive due to a complex process of cultivation, and the yield of ginseng is limited, which cannot meet the demand of the increasing market. Researchers have applied plant biotechnology to solve the problems but there are still things to be determined towards ginsenoside production by large-scale adventitious root culture. In this experiment, 5 to 20 liter bioreactors were employed to determine optimal conditions for adventitious root culture and ginsenoside production of Panax gineng. Callus was induced from the ginseng root on MS agar medium containing 1.0 mg. $L^{-1}$ 2,4-D and 0.1 mg. $L^{-1}$ kinetin. Then the callus was cultured on MS agar medium supplemented with 2.0 mg. $L^{-1}$ IBA, 0.1 mg. $L^{-1}$ kinetin, and 30 g. $L^{-1}$ to induce adventitious roots. The maximum root growth and ginsenoside production were obtained in 1/2 MS medium. 2.0 mg. $L^{-1}$ naphthalene acetic acid resulted in greater root growth than 2.0 mg $L^{-1}$ indole-3-butyric acid. Ginsenoside content increased with 2.0 mg. $L^{-1}$ benzyl adenin or kinetin. High concentrations of benzyl adenin (above 3.0 mg. $L^{-1}$ ) decreased the adventitious root growth and ginsenoside productivity. N $H_{4}$$^{+}$ inhibited the ginsenoside accumulation, while high concentrations of $K^{+}$, $Mg_{2}$$^{+}$, and $Ca_{2}$$^{+}$ increased it. N $H_{4}$$^{+}$ at 0.5 and 1.0 times of the normal amount in 3/4 SH medium resulted in the greatest biomass increase, but the highest ginsenoside productivity was obtained when N $O_{3}$$^{-}$ was used as the sole nitrogen source in the medium. Most microelements at high concentrations in the medium inhibited the root growth, but high concentrations of MnS $O_4$enhanced the root growth. Root dry weight increased with increasing sucrose concentrations up to 50 g. $L^{-1}$ , but decreased from 70 g $L^{-1}$ Ginsenoside productivity was maximized at the range of 20 to 30 g. $L^{-1}$ sucrose. In the experiment on bioreactor types, cone and balloon types were determined to be favorable for both adventitious root growth and ginsenoside production. Jasmonic acid was effective for increasing ginsenoside contents and Rb group ginsenosides mainly increased. These results could be employed in commercial scale bioreactor cultures of Panax ginseng.x ginseng.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.44 no.2
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• pp.258-266
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• 2020

Background: Oxidative stress-induced cardiomyocytes apoptosis is a key pathological process in ischemic heart disease. Glutathione reductase (GR) reduces glutathione disulfide to glutathione (GSH) to alleviate oxidative stress. Ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1) prevents the apoptosis of cardiomyocytes; however, the role of GR in this process is unclear. Therefore, the effects of GRb1 on GR were investigated in this study. Methods: The antiapoptotic effects of GRb1 were evaluated in H9C2 cells by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, annexin V/propidium iodide staining, and Western blotting. The antioxidative effects were measured by a reactive oxygen species assay, and GSH levels and GR activity were examined in the presence and absence of the GR inhibitor 1,3-bis-(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations were used to investigate the binding of GRb1 to GR. The direct influence of GRb1 on GR was confirmed by recombinant human GR protein. Results: GRb1 pretreatment caused dose-dependent inhibition of tert-butyl hydroperoxide-induced cell apoptosis, at a level comparable to that of the positive control N-acetyl-L-cysteine. The binding energy between GRb1 and GR was positive (-6.426 kcal/mol), and the binding was stable. GRb1 significantl reduced reactive oxygen species production and increased GSH level and GR activity without altering GR protein expression in H9C2 cells. Moreover, GRb1 enhanced the recombinant human GR protein activity in vitro, with a half-maximal effective concentration of ≈2.317 μM. Conversely, 1,3-bis-(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea co-treatment significantly abolished the GRb1's apoptotic and antioxidative effects of GRb1 in H9C2 cells. Conclusion: GRb1 is a potential natural GR agonist that protects against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis of H9C2 cells.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.26 no.4
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• pp.196-201
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• 2002

This study was carried out to compare the contents of saponins and minerals component in Korean Red Ginseng (Heaven, Earth, Good grade), North Korean Red Ginseng (Heaven, Earth, Good grade), Japanese Red Ginseng (Oonju, Sinju 1, 2, 3 grade, respectively) and Chinese Red Ginseng (Seokju, Gilim, 1, 2, 3 grade, respectively). Crude saponin contents were different on according to the grade and cultivation area, and was 3.05-3.76% in Korean Red Ginseng, 2.09-3.21% in North Korean Red Ginseng, 2.82-3.71% in Chinese Seokju Red Ginseng, 2.72-3.62% in Chinese Gilim Red Ginseng, 2.11-2.44% in Japanese Oonju Red Ginseng, 2.18-2.87% in Japanese Sinju Red Ginseng, and the amount of ginsenoside-Rb1, -Re, -Rg$\_$1/ in Korean Red Ginseng were higher than those of North Korean, Chinese and Japanese Red Gingsen. The contents of mineral components were similar, but La, Na and Sn component in Korean Red Ginseng showed the higher amount than those of other Red Ginsengs.

• Proceedings of the Ginseng society Conference
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• 2006.05a
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• pp.3-12
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• 2006

1 The present work was performed to investigate the effects of ginsenoside Rh2 on proliferation, cell cycle-regulation and differentiation of human leukemia HL-60 cells as well as the underlying mechanisms for these effects. 2 Ginsenoside Rh2 potently inhibited the proliferation of HL-60 cells in both a dose- and time-dependent manner with an $IC_{50}$, $20{\mu}M$. 3 DNA flow-cytometry indicated that ginsenoside Rh2 markedly induced a $G_1$ phase arrest of HL-60 cells. 4 Among the $G_1$ phase cell cycle-related proteins, the levels of cyclin-dependent kinase(CDK)4, 6 and cyclin D1, cyclin D2, cyclin D3 were reduced by ginsenoside Rh2, whereas the steadystate levels of CDK2 and cyclin E were unaffected. 5 The protein levels of a CDK inhibitor p16, $p21^{CIP1/WAF1}$ and $p27^{KIP1}$ were markedly increased by ginsenoside Rh2. 6 Ginsenoside Rh2 markedly enhanced the binding of $p21^{CIP1/WAF1}$ and $p27^{KIP1}$ with CDK2 and CDK6, resulting in the reduced activity of both kinases and the hypophosphorylation of Rb protein. 7 We furthermore suggest that ginsenoside Rh2 is a potent inducer of the differentiation of HL-60 cells, based on observations such as a reduction of the nitroblue tetrazolium level, an increase in the esterase activities and phagocytic activity, morphology changes, and the expression of CD11b, CD14, CD64 and CD66b surface antigens. 8 In conclusion, the onset of ginsenoside Rh2-induced the $G_0/G_1$ arrest of HL-60 cells prior to the differentiation is linked to a sharp up-regulation of the $p21^{CIP1/WAF1}$ level and a decrease in the CDK2, CDK4 and CDK6 activities. This is the first report demonstrating that ginsenoside Rh2 potently inhibits the proliferation of human promyelocytic HL-60 cells via the $G_1$ phase cell cycle arrest and differentiation induction.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.46 no.4
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• pp.561-571
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• 2022

Background: Ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1) is capable of regulating lipid and glucose metabolism through its action on adipocytes. However, the beneficial role of GRb1-induced up-regulation of adiponectin in liver steatosis remains unelucidated. Thus, we tested whether GRb1 ameliorates liver steatosis and insulin resistance by promoting the expression of adiponectin. Methods: 3T3-L1 adipocytes and hepatocytes were used to investigate GRb1's action on adiponectin expression and triglyceride (TG) accumulation. Wild type (WT) mice and adiponectin knockout (KO) mice fed high fat diet were treated with GRb1 for 2 weeks. Hepatic fat accumulation and function as well as insulin sensitivity was measured. The activation of AMPK was also detected in the liver and hepatocytes. Results: GRb1 reversed the reduction of adiponectin secretion in adipocytes. The conditioned medium (CM) from adipocytes treated with GRb1 reduced TG accumulation in hepatocytes, which was partly attenuated by the adiponectin antibody. In the KO mice, the GRb1-induced significant decrease of TG content, ALT and AST was blocked by the deletion of adiponectin. The elevations of GRb1-induced insulin sensitivity indicated by OGTT, ITT and HOMA-IR were also weakened in the KO mice. The CM treatment significantly enhanced the phosphorylation of AMPK in hepatocytes, but not GRb1 treatment. Likewise, the phosphorylation of AMPK in liver of the WT mice was increased by GRb1, but not in the KO mice. Conclusions: The up-regulation of adiponectin by GRb1 contributes to the amelioration of liver steatosis and insulin resistance, which further elucidates a new mechanism underlying the beneficial effects of GRb1 on obesity.