• Proceedings of the Plant Resources Society of Korea Conference
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• 2010.05a
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• pp.16-16
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• 2010

Ginseng(Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is reported to have many pharmaceutical activities. The minor ginsenosides(Rd, Rg3, Rh2 and compound K) display pharmaceutical properties superior to those of the major ginsenosides. These minor ginsenosides, which contribute a very small percentage, are produced by hydrolysis of the sugar moieties of the major ginsenosides. The pH of red ginseng extracts fermented with S. cerevisiae and S. carlsbergensis decreased rapidly during 3 days of fermentation, with no further significant change thereafter. After 20 days of fermentation, a relatively small difference remained in the acidity of extracts fermented with S. cerevisiae (0.54%) and S. carlsbergensis (0.58%). Reducing sugar in the S. cerevisiae and S. carlsbergensis extracts decreased from 25.86 to 4.54 mg/ml and 4.32 mg/ml glucose equivalents, respectively; and ethanol contents increased from 1.5% at day 0 to 16.0 and 15.0%, respectively, at 20 days. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Re, Rf, and Rg1 decreased during the fermentation with S. cerevisiae, but Rd and Rg3 increased by 12 days. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Re and Rg1 decreased gradually in the extract with S. carlsbergensis, but Rd and Rg3 were increased at 6 days and 9 days.

• The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition
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• v.25 no.1
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• pp.83-89
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• 2012

In this study red ginseng was extracted with ethanol and then fermented by yeasts including Lactobacillus casei and Bifidobacterium longum. Fermented red ginseng extracts(FRGE) were found to be more effective antioxidants in vitro with regards to 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl(DPPH) radical scavenging activity than red ginseng extracts(RGE). In FRGE, the contents of ginsenosides $Rb_1$, $-Rb_2$ and -Rc were much lower than in RGE, however, the contents of ginsenosides 20(S)$-Rg_3$, 20(R)$-Rg_3$ and compound K were higher than RGE. FRGE was added to Yanggaeng(0, 5, 10, 15, 20%), and physicochemical and sensory evaluations of the Yanggaeng were conducted. The L and b values of Yanggaeng with added FRGE were decreased by increasing the ratio of FRGE, while the a value was increased. Sensory evaluations for, taste, color, flavor, texture and overall acceptability of Yanggaeng with addition of FRGE (10%) were applicable for improving the Yanggaeng product.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.43 no.4
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• pp.635-644
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• 2019

Background: To increase the pharmacological effects of red ginseng (RG, the steamed root of Panax ginseng Meyer), RG products modified by heat process or fermentation have been developed. However, the antiallergic effects of RG and modified/fermented RG have not been simultaneously examined. Therefore, we examined the allergic rhinitis (AR)-inhibitory effects of water-extracted RG (wRG), 50% ethanol-extracted RG (eRG), and bifidobacteria-fermented eRG (fRG) in vivo. Methods: RBL-2H3 cells were stimulated with phorbol 12-myristate-13-acetate/A23187. Mice with AR were prepared by treatment with ovalbumin. Allergic markers IgE, tumor necrosis factor-${\alpha}$, interleukin (IL)-4, and IL-5 were assayed in the blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, nasal mucosa, and colon using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Mast cells, eosinophils, and Th2 cell populations were assayed using a flow cytometer. Results: RG products potently inhibited IL-4 expression in phorbol 12-myristate-13-acetate/A23187-stimulated RBL-2H3 cells. Of tested RG products, fRG most potently inhibited IL-4 expression. RG products also alleviated ovalbumin-induced AR in mice. Of these, fRG most potently reduced nasal allergy symptoms and blood IgE levels. fRG treatment also reduced IL-4 and IL-5 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, nasal mucosa, and reduced mast cells, eosinophils, and Th2 cell populations. Furthermore, treatment with fRG reduced IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 levels in the colon and restored ovalbumin-suppressed Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria populations and ovalbumin-induced Firmicutes population in gut microbiota. Treatment with ginsenoside Rd significantly alleviated ovalbumin-induced AR in mice. Conclusion: fRG and ginsenoside Rd may alleviate AR by suppressing IgE, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 expression and restoring the composition of gut microbiota.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.39 no.4
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• pp.392-397
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• 2015

Background: Red ginseng (RG) is processed from Panax ginseng via several methods including heat treatment, mild acid hydrolysis, and microbial conversion to transform the major ginsenosides into minor ginsenosides, which have greater pharmaceutical activities. During the fermentation process using microbial strains in a machine for making red ginseng, a change of composition occurs after heating. Therefore, we confirmed that fermentation had occurred using only microbial strains and evaluated the changes in the ginsenosides and their chemical composition. Methods: To confirm the fermentation by microbial strains, the fermented red ginseng was made with microbial strains (w-FRG) or without microbial strains (n-FRG), and the fermentation process was performed to tertiary fermentation. The changes in the ginsenoside composition of the self-manufactured FRG using the machine were evaluated using HPLC, and the 20 ginsenosides were analyzed. Additionally, we investigated changes of the reducing sugar and polyphenol contents during fermentation process. Results: In the fermentation process, ginsenosides Re, Rg1, and Rb1 decreased but ginsenosides Rh1, F2, Rg3, and Compound Y (C.Y) increased in primary FRG more than in the raw ginseng and RG. The content of phenolic compounds was high in FRG and the highest in the tertiary w-FRG. Moreover, the reducing sugar content was approximately three times higher in the tertiary w-FRG than in the other n-FRG. Conclusion: As the results indicate, we confirmed the changes in the ginsenoside content and the role of microbial strains in the fermentation process.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.46 no.3
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• pp.387-395
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• 2022

Background: Fermentation may alter the bioavailability of certain compounds, which may affect their efficacy and pharmacological responses. This study investigated the antiplatelet effects of red ginseng extract (RGE) and fermented red ginseng extract (FRG). Methods: A rodent model was used to evaluate the antiplatelet and antithrombotic effects of the extracts. Rats were orally fed with human equivalent doses of the extracts for 1 week and examined for various signaling pathways using standard in vivo and ex vivo techniques. Light transmission aggregometry was performed, and calcium mobilization, dense granule secretion, integrin α_IIbβ₃-mediated signaling molecules, cyclic nucleotide signaling events, and various protein molecules were evaluated ex vivo in collagen-stimulated washed platelets. Furthermore, antithrombotic properties were evaluated using a standard acute pulmonary thromboembolism model, and the effects on hemostasis were investigated using rat and mice models. Results: Both RGE and FRG significantly inhibited platelet aggregation, calcium mobilization, and dense granule secretion along with integrin-mediated fibrinogen binding and fibrinogen adhesion. cAMP levels were found to be elevated in RGE-treated rat platelets. Ginseng extracts did not exert any effect on prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time. RGE-treated mice showed significantly better survival under thrombosis than FRG-treated mice, with no effects on hemostasis, whereas FRG-treated mice exhibited a slight increment in bleeding time. Conclusion: Both extracts, especially RGE, are remarkable supplements to maintain cardiovascular health and are potential candidates for the treatment and prevention of platelet-related cardiovascular disorders.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition
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• v.36 no.9
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• pp.1211-1218
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• 2007

The aim of this study was to compare the fermentability and characteristics of fermented broths for white ginseng, red ginseng and extruded white ginseng at $110^{\circ}C$ (A), $120^{\circ}C$ (B) and $130^{\circ}C$ (C). The scanning electron microphotograph of B and C was uniform aircell distribution, but A had increased pore size and exploded some aircell's wall. Saccharification rate constant of C was the highest (10.123 $mg/mL·hr^{1/2}$). Fermentation temperature was $27^{\circ}C$ for 30 days and the cultivation was fixed with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus usamii, and Rhizopus japonicus. The pH of red ginseng fermented broth was 3.79, which was the highest among the fermented samples. The fermented broth of B had the highest acidity (4.46%). The fermented broth of A had the highest reducing sugar content in ginseng suspensions (32.36 mg/mL). In ginseng fermented broths, reducing sugar content was decreased rapidly during the initial 5 days and alcohol content was increased during the initial 5 days. On the fifth day, the fermented broth of C showed the highest alcohol content (5.20%).

• Journal of Applied Biological Chemistry
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• v.59 no.2
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• pp.113-124
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• 2016

Red ginseng is known to have many beneficial effects. Cisplatin, an effective antineoplastic drug, can cause many side effects like irreversible sensorineural hearing loss and serious tinnitus in humans. This study is aimed to reduce a cisplatin's side effect, nephrotoxicity by fermentated korean red ginseng. Korea ginseng was produced by steaming and dring and fermentation. And mice were divided into 4 groups- (A) normal mice, (B) Vehicle treated cisplatin mice, (C) RG0F0-treated cisplatin mice, (D) RG8F3-treated cisplatin mice. C and D groups were feed each material 200 mg/kg/day during 4 days. And cisplatin 20 mg/kg injected to B, C, and D groups as abdominal injection. After 24 h, blood sample was collected. The kidneys were harvested for histological, immuno histochemical and western blot analysis. 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging activity was depended on steaming hours. RG0F0 and RG8F3 (ginseng-8 h steamed and fermented by Saccharomyces cerevisiae) were showed antioxidants effect in DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activity. Component amounts according to steaming hours. 8 h steamed red ginseng had the most ingredients of ginsenoside. Treatments with RG8F3 reduced cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in the mice resulting in increase of GSH and decrease of ROS, BUN, creatinine, and inflammatory mediators. This result seems to be involved with the restriction of the inflammation in the kidney. Therefore, fermented red ginseng might have therapeutic efficacy in reduce kidney injury induced by cisplatin treatment.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition
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• v.28 no.4
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• pp.766-772
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• 1999

In order to improve funtionality of kochujang, red ginseng powder(1, 2 and 5% red ginseng on the total weight basis) was added to the raw material of kochujang. Changes in moisture content, microflora and enzyme activities were investigated in control kochujang(Sunchang kochujang) and red ginseng added kochujang during fermentation at 25oC for 120 days. Kochujang samples fremented for 90 and 120 days were subjected to sensory evaluation test. As the fermentation progressed, the moisture content and titratable acidity were gradually increased whereas pH was decreased. However, red ginseng had no effects on those changes. Bacterial count was maintained at the level of 107 CFU/g during fermentation. The level of yeast count was 104 CFU/g at the early stage of fermentation and increaed to 107 CFU/g after 60 days of fermentation and then maintained at 107 CFU/g. Red-ginseng had no effects on bacterial and yeast counts of kochujang. Amylase activity was gradually reduced during fermentation. Amylase activity was increased until 60 days of fermentation and then reduced by 90 days of fermentation. Acidic protease activity was slightly reduced at the initial stage of fermentation and then rapid increased. Acidic protease activity was at the highest level after 120 days of fermentation. Red ginseng did not alter those enzyme activities of kochujang. There were no differences in sensory properties between kochujang samples fermented for 90 and 120 days of fermentation. The addition of red-ginseng did not affect such sensory properties of kochujang as color, odor, hot taste and salty taste, but overall preference appeared to be improved by red ginseng addition.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.38 no.2
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• pp.97-105
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• 2014

Background: Understanding what causes changes in the flux of free fatty acids (FFA) is important to elucidate the etiology of metabolic syndrome. The first aim of this study was to test whether or not hormones and the autonomic nervous system influence blood FFA levels. A secondary aim was to test by means of a multiple group path analysis whether the consumption of fermented red ginseng (FRG; Panax ginseng) would influence those causal relationships. Methods: Ninety-three postmenopausal women (age 50e73 yr) were randomly divided into two groups. One group (44 women; age, $58.4{\pm}5.9yr$; body mass index, $3.6{\pm}2.5kg/m^2$) was supplied place capsules and the other group (49 women, age $58.4{\pm}5.5yr$; body mass index, $22.9{\pm}2.4kg/m^2$) was supplied FRG capsules. Both prior to and after the study (2 wk), blood samples were collected from the participants and several blood variables were measured and analyzed. Results: Squared multiple correlations of FFA were 0.699 in the placebo group and 0.707 in the FRG group. The unstandardized estimate of estradiol (E2) for FFA was 0.824 in both groups. Conclusion: The path coefficients of cortisol and the branchial pulse for FFA were significantly different between the FRG group and the placebo group.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition
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• v.39 no.9
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• pp.1391-1398
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• 2010

Red ginseng marc (RGM) was fermented by the solid-state fermentation using Bacillus subtilis HA to produce biologically active compounds. The red ginseng marc fermented without mugwort possessed higher mucilage content (11.5%) and proteolytic activity (277.5 unit/g). The RGM fermented with 3% mugwort showed lower production of mucilage and protease activity whereas higher tyrosine content (581.3 mg%) and consistency index ($8.8\;Pa{\cdot}s^n$). The mucilage produced from fermented RGM contained $\gamma$-PGA with 1,100 kDa of molecular weight, and its yield was 15.9 g/kg. 70% ethanol extract from the RGM fermented with 3% mugwort had the highest DPPH radical scavenging effect ($IC_{50}$ value of 0.57 mg/mL), and the water extract showed the highest ABTS radical scavenging effect, indicating $IC_{50}$ value of 1.24 mg/mL. Overall, the RGM fermented by B. subtilis HA with mugwort contained various biologically active compounds having antioxidant effects.