• 건축역사연구
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• 제21권6호
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• pp.77-90
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• 2012

The typical form of Indian Stupa, which is going to understood the gradual development and various forms at the Kushan-era Stupa. Buddhist art and architecture of the Kushan-era was influenced Gandharan Hellenistic culture of the foreign. And indigenous Indian cultures of mature was visually big change. The Kushan-era Stupa has been ten feature. First, a circular podium at typical form of the initial Stupa was constantly changed. Second, is the Stupa of the overlaps and increase podium. Third, the Stupa has been square podium. Forth, is down scale of Anda(Bokbal). Fifth, increases the Stupa and Railing smaller, and Change the position of the Torana(gateway). Sixth, changing the target of the faith, thereby a statue of Buddha has been added in the Stupa. Seventh, around the main Stupa and podium are made in a tabernacle. Eighth, the developed spokes structure was added to on the podium inside. Ninth, crosswise plan appears unlike general Stupa. This type has relevance with Tower Stupa. Tenth, the Votive Stupa was added to the temples and Apse type chaitya has been developed.

• 건축역사연구
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• 제21권4호
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• pp.7-24
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• 2012

The Buddhist cave temple carved into the rock provides a large space for the ritual in general in which a structure of Stupa is built in the center of the space purely for religious worship empty of Sarira, and the temple is formed around this Stupa. Relief-Stupa of the cave temple indicates the similar shape that of Relief-religious worship of flat land temple. However, there appears a small difference in representation since the background of formation of the cave temple differs in that of flat land temple. Specially, Caitya Stupa of currently existing cave temples have been damaged to lose of their original shape only possible to be analyzed the stylistic development through Relief-Stupa from which the characteristic of Stupa could be understood. The early cave temple could be characterized with a balanced structure consists of upturn bowl, steeple stone with simple drum & Hamikawasnagae, in which it appears strongly the detail factor characteristics of drum & steeple of having system with Caitya Stupa. In the post cave temple, the subject of worship moved to statue of Buddha due to the influence of Gandhara, Mathura art which reduced the importance of Stupa. This illustrates in Relief-stupa as well the style change as well as changes in detail factor. The sculpture appeared at the limited location either the wall of Caitya shrine or pillar in vihara cave with stronger decorative meaning. Contrast to the Relief Stupa of early flat land temples or the cave temples mentioned above sculptured with symbolism, however, the post cave temple showed the relief structure based on the plan of flat plan.

• 건축역사연구
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• 제19권4호
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• pp.55-70
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• 2010

Although scholarly terminology should have clear meanings as signs, Korean pagoda terminology has become jargon and is creating difficulties in communicating meanings which are far from the originally intended meanings; this terminology is sometimes notated in dead language, meaning old Chinese characters, or Japanese styled Chinese characters. Nobody has asked questions on the terminology itself which has long been commonly used for a century, since the Japanese-ruling period. One of the main reasons for this error is that the Indian Buddhist scriptures in Sanskrit has been translated into Chinese with vague understanding of form and meaning of stupa since 3rd Century A.D. On the other hand, the English-language terminology, already built by Indology scholars since the beginning of the 20th century, consists of easier language and clearer meanings. This paper examines misunderstanding and mistranslation of the original Indian stupa terms and suggests new terminology in current, easier language.

• 건축역사연구
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• 제18권6호
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• pp.103-126
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• 2009

This study aims to discover historical trends and change of form of all stupas in India with observation of field study that is as direct as possible, by classifying, analyzing, and synthesizing the stupas. Study of Indian stupa in Korea has a number of shortcomings since only introductory partial approach has been made in order to seek the origin of Korean pagoda. This study also aims to correct errors of stupa terminology in Chinese character committed by misinterpretation of Hindi language which was established by precedent Japanese scholars several decades ago. Piled-up stupas were totally destroyed by pagans, therefore their remains tell us only of structure, material, sizeand disposition. However remains of carved stone at torana and drum give us clues as to the original form of stupa and worshipping activity, as well as change to a more luxurious form. Many rock cave stupas of India show us both simple forms matching the ascetic age of early Buddhism and luxurious changes in Mahayanan era introducing us to statues of Buddha. Indians recovered the spheric form of 'anda,' a Hindi term meaning cosmic egg, from the hemispheric form of the piled-up stupa. Therefore we might discard the erratic term of 'bokbal', which means an upset vessel. Railings and parasols became main factors of stupa design. Carved railings around stupa became a sign of divinity. Serious worshipping activity made drums long or high and created multi-embossed stripes. Bases of circular drums of some cave stupas changed their shapes to rectangular or octagonal. Single parasols became multiparasols of affluent flowerlike curved stems on carved stupa. Multistoried, elongated and high parasols of Gandhara stupas are closely related to such factors as diverse changes of form in Indian subcontinent. Four-sided torana gate and ayaka column of the circular form of original stupas suggest the rectangular form of subsequent East Asian pagoda, and higher and wider base of Indian stupas became the origin of East Asian rectangular pagoda.

• 건축역사연구
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• 제20권4호
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• pp.135-156
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• 2011

Stupa in India divides into two: stupa in flatland temple with a character of tomb, and devotional stupa made for offering. The difference of such character is made by whether there is any Sari, and main center for worship is flatland stupa where Sari is settled. Stupa in flatland temple is targeted to that with Sari, whose character is applied into Relief-stupa. The characteristics of Relief-stupa can be divided into two: a relief with similar type of flatland stupa in the form, and a devotional relief in which drum and upper part of tower are developed. The Relief-stupa of flatland temple could be confirmed at tower gate of Sanchi tower, decoration of handrail, and the wall attached to Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda stupa. To the contrary, drum and upper wheel part in the Relief-stupa are developed in the votive stupa. Such characteristics had different features according to usage: The example of former is that there is an expression of landscape of stupa built at that time, and the example of latter is those which had similar type of stone cave temple or offering tower near stupa. Thus, the meaning is subject to the existing of Sari. Stupa building developed along with the development of Buddhist structural activity with the existing popular tradition. And its influence was expanded along with various cultures locally. And, the structure and tower reflected various types and thoughts. Stupa reflected its building site and method according to types, and was created in a new form by its usage.

• 건축역사연구
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• 제17권4호
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• pp.129-152
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• 2008

Early Buddhist rock cave temples of India, in spite of being an origin of Buddhist temples, has little been studied in Korea. After field studies and an interpretation of their forms in conjunction with religious life, precedent theories are supplemented and refuted as follows. Starting from the 2nd century B,C., Buddhist ascetic disciples digged residential rock caves, called vihara, for protection from monsoon rain and hot weather, A typical arrangement was settled -a courtyard type, with 3 side rows of tiny one-person bedroom and a front veranda with columns. Also digged were Chaitya caves, in line with viharas, to worship, which is the tumulus of Buddha's relics. I suggest that the original type of chaitya a simple circle cave with a stupa, suitable for circumambulating ceremonies. I refute the existing theory presenting Barabar caves of Ajivika as a chaitya origin, featuring empty circular room without a stupa. I also interpret a typical apsidal plan as being a simple result of adding a place of worshipping rites in front of the stupa. Enclosing columns around a cylindrical stupa is a result of reinforcing both the divine space and circumambulating ceremonies, with elongation toward hall. Finally the chaitya came to have a grandeur apsidal plan with high vault ceiling nave and a side aisle as in Western cathedrals with large frontal horseshoe arch windows. The Buddha image, which had become a new worshipping object, was integrated into the stupa and interior surface. First the stupa and then the statue was introduced to residential Viharas. Therefore, I suggest that the vihara should be renamed as 'chaitya' as a worshipping place, by establishing statue rooms without bedrooms at all. The functionally changed vihara is similar in form to a 'rectangular type of chaitya', little known and developed in different routes. A columned inner courtyard gradually becama an offering place, like Hindu mandapa, Buddhist caves ware changed to a kind of Tantric and Hindu temple by means of statue worshipping offering rituals.

• 건축역사연구
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• 제20권2호
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• pp.39-54
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• 2011

The Bunhuangsa stone pagoda, constructed in AD. 634, National Treasure no. 30, has been named as 'brick-copied pagoda' since the Japanese-ruling period by scholars. It is said that the Chinese brick pagoda was its precedent model, however the Bunhuangsa Pagoda is the oldest of all the Chinese-style brick pagodas except one, the Sungaksa Pagoda. The Chinese pagoda cannot have been a precedent model to copy due to its complex detail of wood vestige, as the Bunhuangsa pagoda is simple form without ornament. Domestic brick pagodas cannot have been a precedent model to copy as well, because all the domestic brick pagodas are younger than the Bunhuangsa Pagoda. Therefore, the terminology 'brick-copied pagoda' is a fallacy; it is rather that later brick pagoda copied the precedent the Bunhuangsa stone pagoda. The Bunhuangsa Pagoda is simply a piled-up pagoda of thick or thin, big or small slates of stone, facing only one smooth side and therefore needing nothing to relate to brick. The originality of the pagoda is more related to simple piled-up Indian stone stupa rather than Chinese brick pagoda. The roof form of its gradually stepped projection comes from the harmika of the summit of Indian stupa. Contrary to general history, old Silla Dynasty imported Buddhism directly from India by sea. From written national history and by temple foundation history, the Indian Buddhism evangelist possibly made influence to the erecting of temple and pagoda. The original wrong terminology has made a harmful effect gradually to the naming of mass-styled stone pagoda of only carved stepped-roof form after brick-copied pagoda. The false term 'brick-copied pagoda' should be discarded, which comes with superficial observation based on toadyism to China and colonialism to Japan. Instead of the fallacious term, this paper suggests multi-storied 'piled-up pagoda with slate stone.'

• 조형예술학연구
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• 제13권1호
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• pp.61-86
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• 2008

불교와 불교미술은 인도에서 발원하였지만, 그것들은 각 나라에 전파되면서 국제적인 환경을 만들어 냈다. 불교는 각 나라에 일종의 꾸러미의 형식으로 전파되었다. 예를 들면 불경, 불상과 불화의 도상과 양식, 건축과 그 기법, 복잡한 의식, 승려나 여승이 기거하는 사찰에서 건축적 요소와 그 기법들이 함께 소개되었다 불교의 시작은 인도의 아쇼카 왕조시기(reign of King Asoka)로 거슬러 올라가지만, 이후 각 나라의 정치적, 지적, 예술적, 종교적, 사회적, 자연적 환경, 지리적, 지질적 환경에 맞게 전개됐다. 불교미술은 토착화하면서 그 지역민을 닮은 상이 만들어 졌고, 또 지역마다 독특한 특색을 나타내면서 발전하기 시작했다. 스투파(stupa)와 차이챠 홀(chaitya hall)은 수도원의 독특한 분위기를 만들어 내곤 중앙아시아의 대상인들은 인도의 문화가 중국에 전해지는데 공헌했을 뿐만 아니라, 그들이 지나던 교역루트의 자연환경 덕분에 화려한 색채의 벽화들이 제작되고 보존될 수 있었다. 불교와 불교 미술이 중국과 한국, 일본에 전해졌을 때, 불교는 국가 제도와 사회적 조직의 일부가 되었다. 정치적 목적에 의해 거대한 불상들이 산속의 동굴에 만들어 지기도 했다. 중국은 스투파를 사각형의 기둥으로 변형시켰고, 기와를 얹은 지붕 형식의 탑을 만들어 냈다. 한국은 불교미술을 중국에서 일본으로 전파시켰을 뿐만 아니라, 고유한 방식으로 그것을 변형시켰다. 석굴암의 깊은 명상에 잠긴 듯한 보살상들의 이미지가 그 좋은 예이다. 중국에서는 신유교 철학이 국-가의 공식적인 이념이 되면서 선종의 부흥하기도 했으며, 일본의 선승들은 신도들의 명상을 북돋기 위해 선종 형식의 정원을 만들어 냈다. 티벳의 밀교에서도 불교미술의 중요한 발전양상을 확인할 수 있다. 밀교의 미술은 예술적 환경 뿐만 아니라, 지적이고 종교적인 것에도 속한다. 한편 티벳의 신들이 그들의 배우자를 안고 있는 모습은 신과 신자들의 융합을 상징하기도 한다. 불교미술은 독창적인 환경을 만들어 냈고, 여라 나라에 전파되면서, 상당한 변화를 낳았다.