Browse > Article
http://dx.doi.org/10.13000/JFMSE.2015.27.3.853

The differences in procrastination and anxiety according to the gender and cognitive regulatory focus of university students  

KIM, Bo-Kyoung (Pusan National University)
YOO, Soon-Hwa (Pusan National University)
Publication Information
Journal of Fisheries and Marine Sciences Education / v.27, no.3, 2015 , pp. 853-869 More about this Journal
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine the difference in procrastination and anxiety as a personality trait according to gender and the cognitive regulatory focus of university students. In this study, we would like to answer the following questions: First, is there any difference in procrastination according to gender and regulatory focus? Second, is there any difference in anxiety according to gender and regulatory focus? The participants of this study comprised of 434 university students(171 male, 263 female), studying at 4 universities in South Korea. To examine whether the relative strength of promotion and prevention focus would differ across gender groups and regulatory focus type(promotion or prevention), we conducted a $2{\times}2$ factorial analysis of variance(ANOVA). The results of this study are as follows. First, there were significant difference in procrastination according to gender and regulatory focus, but there were no interaction effect between gender and regulatory focus. Second, there were significant difference in trait anxiety according to gender and regulatory focus, but there were no interaction effect between gender and regulatory focus. This study found that procrastination and anxiety as personality traits are differ depending on gender and regulatory focus(promotion focus and prevention focus). Suggestions and discussions based on these findings are provided.
Keywords
Regulatory focus; Promotion focus; Prevention focus; Procrastination; Anxiety;
Citations & Related Records
Times Cited By KSCI : 5  (Citation Analysis)
연도 인용수 순위
1 Yoon, Jung-Min.Kim, Jung-Min(2008). The Mediating Effects of Stress Coping Behaviors on the Relationship Between Children's Perfectionism and Anxiety. Korean Journal of Counseling and Psychology, 20(3), 863-883.
2 Yoon, Suk-Kyung(1996). The difference in procrastination according to the perfectionism and self-concept of university students. Master's thesis, Yeonsei University.
3 Yu, Kyoung-Mi(2008). Accounting for academic achievement by volitional control and procrastination. Master's thesis, Graduate School of Education, Chonbuk National University.
4 Aitken, N.(1982). College student performance, satisfaction, and retention: Specification and estimation of a structural model. Journal of Higher Education, 53(1), 32-50.   DOI
5 Baek, Seung-Young(2014). Differences in the Degree and Types of Emotional and Behavioral Problems in Children and Adolescents according to School Levels and Gender. Master's thesis, Chosun University.
6 Beswick, G..Rothblum, E. D..Mann, L.(1988). Psychological antecedents of student procrastination. Australian Psychologist, 23, 207-217.   DOI   ScienceOn
7 Bruch, M. A..Cheek, J. M.(1995). Developmental factors in childhood and adolescent shyness. In R. G. Heimberg, M. R. Liebowitz, D. A. Hope, & F. R. Schneier (Eds.), Social phobia: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment (pp. 163.182). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
8 Burka, J. B..Yuen, L. M.(1983). Procrastination: Why you do it and what to do about it. Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.
9 Cesario, J..Grant, H..Higgins, E. T.(2004). Regulatory fit and persuasion: Transfer from "feeling right." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 388-404.   DOI   ScienceOn
10 Butler, G..Mathews, A.(1983). Cognitive processes in anxiety. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 5, 51-62.   DOI
11 Cho, Soo-Churl.Lee Young-Sik(1990). Development of Korean form of the Kovacs' Children's Depression Inventory. Journal of the Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 29(4), 943-956
12 Cho, Yi-Sul(2015). The mediation effects of anxiety sensitivity on the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and academic procrastination. Master's thesis, Chonnam National University.
13 Choi, In-Jae(2007). The Effects of Parent-Adolescent Communication on Adolescent's Self-differentiation, Depression and Anxiety. The Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 26(3), 611-628.   DOI
14 Choi, Jin-Sook.Cho, Soo-Churl(1990). Assessment of Anxiety in Children ? Reliability and Validity of Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale-. Journal of the Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 29(3), 691-702.
15 Choi, Ji-Youn(2001). Contributions of Self-efficacy and Stress Coping Style to Procrastination. Master's thesis, Yonsei University.
16 Choi, Yun-Jung.Kim, Seong-Hoi(2008). Development of an Academic Procrastination Scale for Upper Grade Elementary School Students. Korean Journal of Counseling, 199-219.
17 Chorpita, B. F..Albano, A. M..Barlow, D. H. (1996). Cognitive Processing in Children: Relation to Anxiety and Family Influences. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25 (2), 170-176.   DOI
18 Derryberry, D..Reed, M. A.(1994). Temperament and the self-organization of personality. Development and psychopathology, 6, 653-676.   DOI
19 Cicchetti, D..Tucker, D. M.(1994). Development and self-regulatory structures of the mind. Development and psychopathology, 6, 533-549.   DOI
20 Crowe, E..Higgins, E. T.(1997). Regulatory focus and strategic inclinations : promotion and prevention in decision making. Organizational behavior and Decision Precess, 69, 117-143.   DOI
21 Diaz-Morales, J. F..Ferrari, J. R..Diaz, K(2006). Procrastination and demographic characteristics in Spanish adults: Further evidence. The Journal of Social Psychology, 146(5), 629-633.   DOI
22 Ellis, A..Knaus, W. J.(1977). Overcoming procrastination. New York: Institute for Rational Living.
23 Elliot, A. J..Church, M. A.(1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 218-232.   DOI
24 Else-Quest, N. M..Hyde, J. S..Goldsmith, H. H..Van Hulle, C.(2006). Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 33-72.   DOI   ScienceOn
25 Endler, N. S..Edwards, J.(1982). Stress and Personality, Handbook of Stress, ed, Goldberger and Breznitz, New York: The Free Press.
26 Ferrari, J. R.(1992). Psychometric validation of two procrastination inventories for adults: Arousal and avoidance measures. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 14, 97-110.   DOI
27 Ferrari, J. R.(2000). Procrastination and attention: Factor analysis of attention deficit, boredomness, intelligence, self-esteem and task delay frequencies. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15, 185-196.
28 Ferrari, J. R..Johnson, J..McCown, W.(1995). Procrastination and task avoidance: Theory, research, and treatment. New York: Plenum Press.
29 Ferrari, J. R.(2004). Trait procrastination in academic settings: An overview of students who engage in task delays. In H. C. Schouwenburg, C. Lay, T. A. Pychyl, & J. R. Ferrari.(Eds), Counseling the procrastinator in academic settings (pp. 19-28). Washington. DC: APA Publishing.
30 Ferrari, J. R..Tice, D. M.(2000). Procrastination as a self-handicap for men and women: A task avoidance strategy in a laboratory setting. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 73-83.   DOI
31 Ferrari, J. R..Mason, C. P..Hammer, C.(2006). Procrastination as a predictor of task perceptions: Examining delayed and non-delayed tasks across varied deadlines. Individual Differences Research, 4(1), 28-36.
32 Ferrari, J. R..Parker, J. T..Ware, C. B.(1992). Academic procrastination: Personality correlates with Myers-Briggs types, self-efficacy, and academic locus of control. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 7, 495-502.
33 Flett, G. L..Blankstein, K. R..Hewitt, P. L..Koledin, S.(1992). Components of perfectionism and procrastination in college students. Social Behavior and Personality, 20, 85-94.   DOI
34 Gray, J. A.(1982). The Neuropsychology of Anxiety: an Enquiry in To the Functions of the Septo-hippocampal System. 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
35 Hahn, Doug-Woong(2005). Psychology of human motivation. Seoul, Parkyoungsa.
36 Hahn, Doug-Woong.Lee, Chang-Ho.Tak, Jin-Kook (1993) Standardization of Spielberger's state-traits anxiety inventory. Journal of student guidance, 10(1), 214-222.
37 Higgins, E. T.(1997). Beyond Pleasure and Pain. American Psychologist, 52(12), 1-46.
38 Hammer, C. A..Ferrari, J. R.(2002). Differential incidence of procrastination between blue- and white-collar workers. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social, 21, 333-338.   DOI
39 Haycock, L. A..McCarthy, P..Skay, C. L. (1998). Procastination in college students: The role of self-efficacy and anxiety. Journal of Counseling and Development, 76(3), 317-324.   DOI
40 Heo, Yun-Seok.Sohn Won-Sook(2013). A Person-Centered Analysis of Regulatory Focus for Korean 5-6th graders: Achievement Emotions and Subjective Well-Being. The Korean Journal of Educational Psychology, 27(1), 201-220.
41 Higgins, E. T.(1998). Promotion and Prevention:Regulatory Focus as a Motivational Principle. M. Zanna (Ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 1-46, NY: Academic Press.   DOI
42 Higgins, E. T.(2006). Value from hedonic experience and engagement. Psychological Review, 113, 439-460.   DOI
43 Higgins, E. T..Friedman, R. S..Harlow, R. E..Idson, L. C..Ayduk, O. N..Taylor, A.(2001) Achievement orientations from subjective histories of success: Promotion pride versus prevention pride. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 3-23.   DOI   ScienceOn
44 Higgins, E. T..Shah, J..Friedman, R.(1997). Emotional Responses to Goal Attainment: Strength of Regulatory Focus as Moderator. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 72(3), 515-525.   DOI
45 Hong, J..Lee, A. Y.(2008). Be Fit and Be Strong: Mastering Self-Regulation through Regulatory Fit. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 682-695.   DOI
46 Ingram, R. E..Price, J. M.(Eds.)(2001). Vulnerability to psychopathology: Risk across the lifespan. New York: Guilford Press.
47 Hong, Seung-Il.Hyun, Myoung-Ho(2005). The Effect of Self-Efficacy, Coping Style and Ego-Threat in the Relation between Procrastination Tendency and Psychological Distress. Korean Journal of Psychology, 24(1), 259-277.
48 Howell, A. J..Watson, D. C..Powell, R. A..Buro, K.(2006). Academic procrastination: The pattern and correlates of behavioural postponement. Personality & Individual Differences, 40(8), 1519-1530.   DOI
49 Hwang, Im-Sook(2008). The relationship between perceived parenting styles and academic procrastination mediated by self-efficacy and perfectionism. Master's thesis. The Catholic University of Korea.
50 Johnson, E. M..Green, K. E..Kluever, R. C.(2000). 'Psychometric characteristics of the revised procrastination inventory', Research in Higher Education, 41, 269-271.   DOI
51 Kang, Hye-Ja(2011). The Relationships among Procrastination, Self-Efficacy, Self-Control, and Perceived Stress. Social Science Studies, 35(2), 233-251.
52 Kang, Jung-Im(2013). The Influence of Students' Self-Reported Parental Psychological Control on Academic Procrastination of Middle School Students. Master's thesis, Graduate School of Education, Pusan National University.
53 Kang, Kyung-ho.Hong, Hye-Young(2012). The Mediating Effects of Self-encouragement on the relationship of between Parent attachment and Trait Anxiety. Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 19(7), 51-77.
54 Keller, J.(2007). When negative stereotypic expectancies turn into challenge or threat: The moderating role of regulatory focus. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 66(3), 163-168.   DOI
55 Kim, Ji-Young(2005). The Effects of Impulsivity and Self-efficacy on Procrastination among elementary school students. Master's thesis. Sookmyung Women's University.
56 Kim, Hui-Jeong(2010). The psychological characteristics and emotional distress related with active-passive procrastination behavior. Master's Thesis, Graduante School The Catholic University of Korea.
57 Kim, Hyok-Kon(1991). The Effect of Group Counseling Program for Interpersonal anxiety. Journal of College Counseling, 3(1), 75-95.
58 Kim, Hyung-Jun.Oh, Soo-Sung(2012). Attentional biases for emotional stimuli according to trait anxiety and defensiveness. Korean Journal of Psychology: General, 31(1), 127-145.
59 Kim, Jung-Taek(1978). The relation between trait anxiety and sociality. Master's thesis. Korea University.
60 Kim, Kyo-Heon.Chon, Kyum-Koo(1991). A control theory approach = Development of the Life Stress Scale for College Students. The Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 10(1), 137-158.
61 Kim, Mi-Ryong(2008). The Relationship of Self-control ability and Locus of control to Procrastination of Elementary School students. Master's thesis, Seoul National University of Education.
62 Kim, Mi-Kyong(2008). The Effect of Anxiety Level for the Cognition of Employment Possibility of University Student. Master's thesis, Kyonggi University.
63 Kim, San.Ha Eun-Hye(2011). The Mediating Effects of Cognitive Distortions on the Relationships between Adolescent's Trait-Anxiety and Somatization Symptoms. Korean Journal of Play Therapy, 14(2), 57-71.
64 Knaus, W. J.(2004). Break the procrastination habit now. NY: Barnes & Nobel
65 Kim, Suk-Hyun(2013). Self-handicapping Strategy as a Mediator of the Relationship between Fear of Failure and Academic Procrastination. Master's thesis, Chonnam National University.
66 Kim, Yeon-Shil(2000). The Relationship between Parental Authority, Perfectionism and Academic Procrastination. Master's thesis, Yeonsei University.
67 Klingsieck, K. B..Fries, S..Horz, C..Hofer, M. (2012). Procrastination in a distance university setting. Distance Education, 33(3), 295?310.   DOI
68 Kye, Su-Young.Park, Kee-Hwan.Eom So-Yong (2011). The Effects of Perfectionism and Achievement Goal Orientation on Academic Procrastination in College Students. Cognitive Behavior Therapy in Korea, 11(2), 95-111.
69 Kyeh, Eun-Ju(2001). The use of defense mechanism depending on the level of trait anxiety and depression. Master's thesis, The Graduate School of Education, Ewha Womans University.
70 Lay, C. H.(1986). At last, my research article on procrastination. Journal of Research in Personality, 20, 474-495.   DOI
71 Lay, C. H.(1990). Working to schedule on personal projects: An assessment of person-project charactcristics and trait procrastination. Journal of social Behavior and Personality, 5, 91-103.
72 Lee, Eun-Jung(2002) A study of the relationships among the perfectionism, the locus of control, and the academic procrastination of the undergraduate students. Master's thesis, Yonsei University.
73 Lee, Hyun-Ji.Jang, Eun-Young.Park, Yong-Chon.Kim Dae-ho(2013). Predictors and Longitudinal Changes of Depression and Anxiety among Medical College Students. Korean Journal of Medical Education, 25(2), 101-111.   DOI
74 Lee, A. Y..Aaker, J. L.(2004), "Bringing the Frame into Focus: The Influence of Regulatory Fit on Processing Fluency and Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 205-218.   DOI
75 Lee, Kyoung-Ho(2010). The Effect of Achievement Goal onAcademic Procrastination: Focused on Behavior Intention and Time Perspective as a Mediator. Master's thesis, Hanyang University.
76 Lee, Sun-Joo(1995) The Study on the Relationship between Trait-Anxiety, Locus of Contrl and Stress Coping Style : A focus on High School Student. Master's thesis, Ewha Womans University.
77 Lee, Young-Hwa(2010) The Effects of Voters' Political Orientations and Political Involvement Levels on Political Advertising Evaluations : Role of Regulatory-Focus in Processing Messages in Political Advertisements. Master's thesis, HanKuk University of Foreign Studies.
78 Lerner, J. S..Keltner, D.(2000). Beyond valence: Toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgment and choice. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 473-493   DOI
79 Lim, Sung-Moon(2006). An exploratory study of the relations between early maladaptive schemas and chronic procrastination : A search of mediation variables and pass model. Master's thesis, Korea University.
80 Lim, Sung-Moon.Park, Myung-Hee(2010). The Effects of harm avoidance temperament and parental psychological control on chronic procrastination: The mediating effect of self-determination. The Social Science Research, 27(2), 127-146.
81 Lockwood, P..Jordan, C. H..Kunda, Z.(2002). Motivation by positive or negative role models: Regulatory focus determines who will best inspire us. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(4), 854-864.   DOI
82 Mellanby, J..Zimdars, A.(2011) Trait anxiety and degree performance. Higher Education. 61(4). 357-370.   DOI
83 Maner, J. K..Richey, J. A..Cromer, K..Mallott, M..Lejuez, C. W..Joiner, T. E..Schmidt, N. B. (2007). Dispositional anxiety and risk-avoidant decision-making. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 665-675.   DOI
84 McCown, W. G..Johnson, J. L.(1991). Personality and chronic procrastination by university students during an academic examination period. Personality and Individual Differences, 12(5), 413-415   DOI
85 McCown, W. G..Roberts, R.(1994). A Study of academic and work-related dysfunctioning relevant to the college version of an indirect measure of impulsive behaviour. Integra Technical Paper 94-98, Radnor, PA: Integra, Inc.
86 Milgram, N. N..Mey-Tal, G..Levison, Y.(1998). Procrastination, generalized or specific, in college students and their parents. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(2), 297-316.   DOI
87 Moon, Kyung-Joo.Oh, Kyung-Ja(2002). The relationship between perceived parental behaviors and early adolescents' depression and anxiety. The Korena Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21(1), 29-43.
88 Nah, Young-Sim.Hahn, Doug-Woong(2005) Effect of fit between self-guide and regulatory focus on depression and anxiety under failure situations. Korean Journal of Health Psychology, 10(4), 431-453.
89 O'Brien, W. K.(2002). Applying the transtheoretical model to academic procrastination. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Houston
90 Park, Hye-Lang(2010). The Effect of State-Trait Anxiety, Self-Efficacy, Behavior Inhibition System on Test Anxiety. Master's thesis, Gyeongsang National University.
91 Park, Seung-Ho.Seo, Eun-Hee(2005). Women College Students' Academic Procrastination. Korean Journal of Educational Research, 43(2), 115-134.
92 Park, Seo-Yeon(2013). The Effect of Middle School Student's Perfectionism and Trait Anxiety on School Adjustment. Master's thesis, JeJu National University.
93 Park, Jin-Ah.Chung, Moon-Ja(2007). Moderating effects of mothers' parenting behaviors on the relationship between temperament of preschoolers with anxiety disorders and their dysfunctional emotion regulation. Korean Journal of counseling and psychology, 19(2), 273-295.
94 Park, Kyun-Ae.Kim Eun-Young(1999). Depression of Youth. Seoul: Korean Youth Counseling Institute.
95 Pintrich, P. R.(2000). Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal orientation in learning and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 544-555.   DOI
96 Pychyl, T. A..Lee, J. M..Thibodeau, R..Blunt, A.(2000). Five days of emotion: An experience sampling study of undergraduate student procrastination. In J. R. Ferrari & T. A. Pychyl (Eds.), Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15, 153-166 (Special issue)
97 Rapee, R. M..Melville, L. F.(1997). Recall of family factors in social phobia and panic disorder: Comparison of mother and offspring reports. Depression and Anxiety, 5, 7-11.   DOI
98 Rothblum, E. D..Solomon, L. J..Murakami, J. (1986). Affective, cognitive, and behavioral differences between high and low procrastinators. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33, 387-394.   DOI
99 Semb, G..Glick, D. M..Spencer, R. E.(1979). Student withdrawals and delayed work patterns in self-paced psychology courses. Teaching of psychology, 6, 23-25.   DOI
100 Seo, Eun-Hee(2012). Teacher's procrastination and its reasons. Korean Journal of Teacher Education, 28(2), 189-201.
101 Shepherd, R. M.(2006). Volitional Strategies and Social Anxiety among College Students. College Quarterly, 9(4). online journal (no page numbers).
102 Shin, Hae-Lin.Lee, Ki-Hak(2008). Adult Attachment and Gender Differences in Social Anxiety. Korean Journal of Psychology: General, 27(1), 139-159.   DOI
103 Shin, Min-Jung.Chung, Kyong-Mee.Kim, Eun-Sung (2012). Gender Differences in Depression and Anxiety Among Korean Adolescents: Onset and Developmental Change. The Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31(1), 93-114.   DOI
104 Shu, T. M..Lam, S. F.(2011). Are success and failure experiences equally motivational? An investigation of regulatory focus and feedback. Educational Neuroscience, 21(6), 724-727.
105 Solomon, L. J..Rothblum, E. D.(1984). Academic procrastination: Frequency and cognitive-behavioral correlates. Journal of counseling Psychology, 31, 503-509.   DOI
106 Song, Ju-Won(1987). A Study of anxiety and adapation of University Students. Master's thesis, Korea University.
107 Sung, Jong-Ho.Lee, Young-Sik.Lee, Kil-Hong (1999). Individual and Socioenvironmental Factors Affecting Test Anxiety in Adolescents. Journal of the Korean Neuropsychiactric Association, 38(3), 571-582.
108 Spielberger, C. D.(1972). Anxiety as an emotional state in anxiety: Current Trends in Theory and Research. Ed., C.D. Spielberger, New York: Academic press.
109 Spielberger, C. D..Gorsuch, R. L..Lushene, R..Vagg, P. R..Jacobs, G. A.(1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
110 Steel, P.(2007). The Nature of Procrastination: A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical Review of Quintessntial Self-Regulatory Failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65-94.   DOI   ScienceOn
111 Steel, P..Brothen, T..Wambach, C.(2001). Procrastination and personality, performance, and mood. Personality and individual Differences, 30(1), 95-106.   DOI
112 Suarez, L..Bell-Dolan, D.(2001). The relationship of Child Worry to Cognitive Biases: Threat Interpretation and Likelihood of Event Occurrence. Behavior Therapy, 32, 425-442.   DOI
113 Tamir, M.(2005). Don't worry, be happy? Neuroticism, trait-consistent affect regulation, and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 449-461   DOI
114 Tice, D. M..Bratslavsky, E.(2000). Giving in to feel good: The place of emotion regulation in the context of general self-control. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 149-159.   DOI   ScienceOn
115 Van Eerde, W.(2003). A meta-analytically derived nomological network of procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 1401-1418.   DOI
116 Yang Jung-Ha(2010). The effects of parents' irrational beliefs and trait anxiety on the child-rearing attitudes. Master's thesis, Graduate School of Education, Dongguk University.
117 Yang, Yoon.Kim, Eun-Suk(2008). The effect of chronic/situational regulatory focus and task performance feedback on consumer affect. Korean Journal of Consummer and Advertising Psychology, 9(3), 407-433.
118 Yoon, Jae-Ho(2011). Procrastination motives in college students : psychometric properties of procrastination motives scale & a path model of procrastination motives to psychological maladjustment. Master's thesis, The Catholic University of Korea.