Browse > Article
http://dx.doi.org/10.5010/JPB.2003.30.1.081

Carotenoids Biosynthesis and Their Metabolic Engineering in Plants  

Ha, Sun-Hwa (Metabolic Engineering Division)
Kim, Jung-Bong (Metabolic Engineering Division)
Park, Jong-Sug (Metabolic Engineering Division)
Ryu, Tae-Hun (Plant Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, RDA)
Kim, Kyung-Hwan (Metabolic Engineering Division)
Hahn, Bum-Soo (Metabolic Engineering Division)
Kim, Jong-Bum (Metabolic Engineering Division)
Kim, Youg-Hwan (Metabolic Engineering Division)
Publication Information
Journal of Plant Biotechnology / v.30, no.1, 2003 , pp. 81-95 More about this Journal
Abstract
Carotenoids are synthesized from the plastidic glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP)/pyruvate pathway in isoprenoids biosynthetic system of plants. They play a crucial role in light harvesting, work as photoprotective agents in photosynthesis of nature, and are also responsible for the red, orange and yellow colors of fruits and flowers in plants. In addition to biological actions of carotenoids as antioxidants and natural pigments, they are essential components of human diet as a source of vitamin A. It has been also suggested that some kinds of carotenoids might provide protection against cancer and heart disease as human medicines. In this article, we review the commercial applications on the basis of biological functions of carotenoids, summarize the studies of genes involved in the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway, and introduce recent results achieved in metabolic engineering of carotenoids. This effort for understanding the carotenoids metabolism will make us to increase the total carotenoid contents of crop plants, direct the carotenoid biosynthetic machinery towards other useful carotenoids, and produce a new array of carotenoids by further metabolizing the new precursors that are created when one or two key enzymes in carotenoid biosynthetic pathway are exchanged through gene manipulation in the near future.
Keywords
Carotenoids; isoprenoids; metabolic engineering;
Citations & Related Records
연도 인용수 순위
  • Reference
1 Ausich RL, Brinkhaus FL, Mukharji I, Proffitt JH, Yarger JG, Yen HB (1993a) Beta-carotene biosynthesis in genetically engineered hosts. US patent 5530188
2 Ausich RL, Brinkhaus FL, Mukharji I, Proffitt JH, Yarger JG, Yen HB (1993b) Biosynthesis of zeaxanthin and glycosylated zeaxanthin in genetically engineered hosts. US patent 5684238
3 Bartley GE, Scolnik PA (1993) cDNA cloning, expression during development and genome mapping of PSY2, a second tomato gene encoding phytoene synthase. J Bioi Chem 268: 25718-25721
4 Bartley GE, Scolnik PA (1995) Plant carotenoid: pigments for photoprotection, visual attraction, and human health. Plant Cell 7: 1027-1038   DOI   ScienceOn
5 Bartley GE, Scolnik PA, Giuliano G (1994) Molecular biology of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Bioi 45: 287-301   DOI   ScienceOn
6 Ray J, Bird C, Maunders M, Grierson D, Schuch W (1987) Sequence of pTOM5, a ripening related cDNA from tomato. Nucleic Acids Res 15: 10587   DOI   ScienceOn
7 Ray J, Moureau P, Bird C, Bird A, Grierson D, Maunders M, Truesdale M, Bramley P, Schuch W (1992) Cloning and characterization of a gene involved in phytoene synthesis from tomato. Plant Mol Biol 19: 401-404   DOI   ScienceOn
8 Rodriguez-Concepcion M, Ahumada I, Diez-Juez E, Sauret-Gueto S. Lois LM, Gallego F, Carretero-Paulet L, Campos N, Boronat A (2001) 1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase and plastid isoprenoid biosynthesis during tomato fruit ripening. Plant J 27: 213-222   DOI   ScienceOn
9 Rohdich F, Eisenreich W, Wungsintaweekul J, Richtrer G, Schuhr CA, Hecht S, Zenk MH, Bacher A (2000a) Biosynthesis of terpenoids: 4-diphosphocytidyl-2C-methyl-D-erythritol synthesis of Arabidopsis thailana. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 6451-6456   DOI   ScienceOn
10 Rohdich F, Kis K, Bacher, A. Eisenreich W (2001) The non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoids: genes, enzymes, and intermediates. Curr Opin Chem Biol 5: 535-540   DOI   ScienceOn
11 Walter MH, Hans J, Strack D (2002) Two distinctly related genes encoding 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase: differential regulation in shoots and apocarotenoid-accumulating mycorrhizal roots. Plant J 31: 243-254   DOI   ScienceOn
12 Ye X, Al Babili S, Kloti A, Zhang J, Lucca P, Beyer P, Potrykus I (2000) Engineering the provitamin A ($\beta$-carotene) biosynthetic pathway. Science 287: 303-305   DOI   ScienceOn
13 Bouvier F, d'Harlingue A, Backhaus RA, Kumagai MH, Camara B (2000) Identification of neoxanthin synthase as a carotenoid cyclase paralog. Eur J Biolchem 267: 6346-6352   DOI   ScienceOn
14 Bonk M, Hoffmann B, Von Untig J, Schledz M, AI-Babili S, Hobeika E, Kleinig H, Beyer P (1997) Chloroplast import of four carotenoid biosynthetic enzymes in vitro reveals differential fates prior to membrane binding and oligomeric assembly. Eur J Biochem 247: 942-950   DOI   ScienceOn
15 Bouvier F, Backhaus RA, Camara B (1998) Induction and control of chromoplast-specific carotenoid genes by oxidative stress. J Bioi Chem 273: 30651-30659   DOI
16 Bouvier F, Camara B, Kuntz M (2000) Elevation of the provitamin A content of transgenic tomato plants. Nat Biotechnol 18: 666-669   DOI   ScienceOn
17 AI-Babili S, Hugueney P, Schledz M, Welsch R, Frohnmeyer H, Laule O, Beyer P (2000) Identification of a novel gene coding for neoxanthin synthase from Solanum tuberosum. FEBS Lett 485: 168-172   DOI   ScienceOn
18 AI-Babili S, Lintig J, Kleinig H, BeyerP (1996) A novel soluble form of phytoene desaturase from Narcissus pseudotuucissus chromoplasts is Hsp70-complexed and competant for flavinglation, membrane association and enzymatic activation. Plant J 9: 601-612   DOI   ScienceOn
19 Araki N, Kusumi K, Niwa Y, Iba K (2000) Temperature-sensitive Arabidopsis mutant defective in 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase within the plastid non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. Physiol Plant 108: 19-24
20 Rohmer M, Knani M, Simonin P, Sutter B, Sahm H (1993) Isoprenoid biosynthesis in bacteria: a novel pathway for early steps leading to isopentenyl diphosphate. Biochem J 295: 517-524
21 Romer S, Fraser PD, Kiano JW, Shipton CA, Mizawa N, Schuch W, Bramley PM, Hugueney P, Bouvier F, Camara B, Kuntz M(2000) Elevation of the provitamin A content of Transgenic tomato plants. Nat Biotechnol 18: 666-669   DOI   ScienceOn
22 Romer S, Hugueney P, Bouvier F, Camara B, Kuntz M (1993) Expression of the genes encoding the early carotenoid biosynthetic enzymes in Capsicum annuum. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 196: 1414-1421   DOI   ScienceOn
23 Ronen G, Carmel-Goren L, Zamir D, Hirschberg J (2000) An alternative pathway to B-formation in plant chromoplasts discovered by map-based cloning of beta and old-gold color mutations in tomato. ProcNatl Acad Sci USA 97: 11102-11107   DOI   ScienceOn
24 Ronen G, Cohen M, Zamir D, Hirschberg J (1999) Regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis during tomato fruit development: expression gene for lycopene epsilon-cyclase is down-regulated during ripening and is elevatedin the mutantdelta. Plant J 17: 341-351   DOI   ScienceOn
25 Bugos RC, Yamamoto HY (1996) Molecular cloning of violaxanthin de-epoxidase from romaine lettuce and expression in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 6320-6325   DOI   ScienceOn
26 Arigoni D, Sagner S, Latzel C, Eisenreich W, Bacher A, Zenk MH (1997) Terpenoid biosynthesis from 1-deoxy-D-xylulose in higher plants by intramolecular skeletal rearrangement. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94: 10600-10605   DOI   ScienceOn
27 Bramley P, Teulieres C, Blain I, Brid C, Schuch W (1992) Biochemical characterization of transgenic tomato plants in which carotenoid synthesis has been inhibited through the expression of antisense RNA to pTOM5. Plant J 2: 343-349   DOI
28 Bugos RC, Hieber AD, Yamamoto HY (1998) Xanthophyll cycle enzymes are members of the Iipocalin family, the first identified from plants. J Biol Chem 273: 15321-15324   DOI   ScienceOn
29 Burbidge A, Grieve T, Terry C, Corlett J, Thompson A, Taylor I (1997) Structure and expression of a cDNA encoding zeaxanthin epoxidase, isolated from a wilt-related tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). J Exp Bot 48: 1749-1750
30 Bartley GE, Vitanen PV, Bacot KO, Scolnik PA (1992) A tomato gene expressed during fruit ripening encodes an enzyme of the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway. J Bioi Chem 267: 5036-5039
31 Bartley GE, Vitanen PV, Peeker I, Chamovitz D, Hirschberg J, Scolnik PA (1991) Molecular cloning and expression in photosynthetic bacteria of a soybean cDNA coding for phytoene desaturase, an enzyme of the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88: 6532-6536   DOI   ScienceOn
32 Bird CR, Grierson D, Schuch W (1994) Process for modifying the production of carotenoids in plants, and DNA, constructs and cells therefor. US patent 575086
33 Spurgeon SL, Porter JW (1980) Biosynthesis of carotenoids. In: Porter JW, Spurgeon SL, (eds), Biochemistry of Isoprenoid Compounds, John Wiley, New York, pp 1-122
34 Schwender J, Muller C, Zeidler J, Lichtenthaler HK (1999) Cloning and heterologous expression of a cDNA encoding 1-deoxy-Dxylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase of Arabidopsis thailana. FEBS Lett 455: 140-144   DOI   ScienceOn
35 Seo M, Koshiba T (2002) Complex regulation of ABA biosynthesis in plants. Trends Plant Sci 7: 41-48   DOI   ScienceOn
36 Shewmaker CK, Sheehy JA, Daley M, Colbum S, De DY (1999) Seed specific overexpression of phytoene synthase: increase in carotenoids and other metabolic effects. Plant J 20: 401-412   DOI   ScienceOn
37 Sun Z, Gantt E, Cunningham FXJr (1996) Cloning and functional analysis of the beta-carotene hydroxylase of Arabidopsis thaliana. J Bioi Chem 271: 24349-24352   DOI   ScienceOn
38 Takaya A, Zhang YW, Asawatreratanakul K, Wititsuwannakul D, Wititsuwannakul R, Takahashi S, Koyama T (2003) Cloning, expression and characterization of a functional cDNA clone encoding geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase of Hevea brasiliensis. Biochim Biophys Acta 1625: 214-220   DOI   ScienceOn
39 Veau B, Courtois M, Oudin A, Chenieux JC, Rideau M, Clastre M (2000) Cloning and expression of cDNAs encoding two enzymes of the MEP pathway in Catharanthus roseus. Biochim Biophys Acta 1517: 159-163   DOI   ScienceOn
40 Bird CR, Ray JA, Fletcher JD, Boniwell JM, Bird AS, Teulieres C, Blain I, Bramley PM, Schuch W (1991) Using antisense RNA to study gene function: inhibition of carotenoid biosynthesis in transgenic tomatoes. Bio/Technoloqy 9: 635-639   DOI
41 Cunningham FX Jr, Gantt E (1998) Genes and enzymes of carotenoid Biosynthesis in plants. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol BioI 49: 557-583   DOI   ScienceOn
42 Cunningham FX Jr, Gantt E (2001) One ring or two? Determination of ring number in carotenoids by Iycopene $\epsilon$-cyclases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98: 2905-2910   DOI   ScienceOn
43 Cunningham FX Jr, Pogson B, Sun Z, McDonald KA, DellaPenna D, Gantt E (1996) Functional analysis of the beta and epsilon Iycopene cyclase enzymes of Arabidopsis reveals a mechanism for control of cyclic carotenoid formation. Plant Cell 8: 1613-1626   DOI   ScienceOn
44 Bouvier F, d'Harlingue A, Hugueney P, Marin E, Marionpoll A, Camara B (1996) Xanthophyll biosynthesis-cloning, expression, functional reconstitution, and regulation of beta-cyclohexenyl carorenoid epoxidase from pepper (Capsicum annuum). J BioI Chem 271: 28861-28867   DOI   ScienceOn
45 Bouvier F, d'Harlingue A, Suire C, Backhaus RA, Camara B (1998) Dedicated roles of plastid transketolases during the early onset of isoprenoid biogenesis in pepper fruits. Plant Physiol 117: 1423-1431   DOI
46 Bouvier F, Hugueney P, d'Harlingue A, Kuntz M, Camara B (1994) Xanthophyll biosynthesis in chromoplasts: isolation and molecular cloning of an enzyme catalyzing the conversion of 5, 6-epoxycarotenoid into ketocarotenoid. Plant J 6: 45-54   DOI   ScienceOn
47 Fray RG, Wallace A, Fraster PD, Valero D, Hedden P, Bramley PM, Grierson D (1995) Constitutive expression of a fruit phytoene synthase gene in transgenic tomatoes causes dwarfism by redirecting metabolites from the gibberellin pathway. Plant J 8: 693-701   DOI   ScienceOn
48 Zhu XF, Suzuki K, Okada K, Tanaka K, Nakagawa T, Kawamukai M, Matsuda K (1997a) Cloning and functional expression of a novel geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase gene from Arabidopsis thaliana in Escherichia coli. Plant Cell Physiol 38: 357-361   DOI   ScienceOn
49 Zhu XF, Suzuki K, Saito T, Okada K, Tanaka K, Nakagawa T, Matsuda H, Kawamukai M (1997b) Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase encoded by the newly isolated gene GGPS6 from Arabidopsis thaliana is localized in mitochondria. Plant Mol Biol 35: 331-341   DOI   ScienceOn
50 Bouvier F, Keller Y, d'Hariingue A, Camara B (1998) Xanthophyll biosynthesis: Molecular and functional characterization of carotenoid hydroxylase from pepper fruits. Biochim Biophys Acta 1391: 320-328   DOI   ScienceOn
51 Giuliano G (2000) Metabolic engineering of beta-carotene and Iycopene content in tomato fruit. Plant J 24: 413-420   DOI   ScienceOn
52 Giuliano G, Aquilani R, Dharmapuri S (2000) Metabolic engineering of plant carotenoids. Trends Plant Sci 5: 406-409   DOI   ScienceOn
53 Burkhardt PK, Beyer P, Wunn J, Kloti A, Amstrong GA, Schledz M, von Linting J, Potrykus I (1997) Transgenic rice (Oryza sativa) endosperm expressing daffodil (Narcissus pseudonarcissus) phytoene synthase accumulatesphytoene, a key intermediate of provitamin A biosynthesis. Plant J 11: 1071-1078   DOI   ScienceOn
54 Chahed K, Oudin A, Guivarc'h N, Hamdi S, Chenieux JC, Rideau M, Clastre M (2000) 1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase from periwinkle: cDNA identification and induced gene expression in terpenoid indole alkaloid-producing cells. Plant Physiol Biochem 38: 559-566   DOI   ScienceOn
55 Corona V, Aracri B, Kosturkova G, Bartley GE, Pitto L, Giorgetti L, Scolnik PA, Giulano G (1996) Regulation of a carotenoid biosynthesis gene promoter during tomato development. Plant J 9: 505-512   DOI   ScienceOn
56 Deruere J, Bouvier F, Steppuhn J, Klein A, Camara B, Kuntz M (1994) Structure and expression of two plant genes encoding chromoplast-specific proteins: occurrence of partially spliced transcripts. Biochem Biophys ResCommun 199: 1144-1150   DOI   ScienceOn
57 Cunningham FX Jr, Chamovitz D, Misawa N, Gantt E, Hirschberg J (1993) Cloning and functional expresion in Escherichia coli of a cyanobacterial gene for Iycopene cyclase, the enzyme that catalyzes the biosynthesis of $\beta$-carotene. FEBS Lett 328: 130-138   DOI   ScienceOn
58 Hugueney P, Badililo A, Chen HC, Klein A, Hirschberg J, Camara B, Kuntz M(1995) Metabolism of cyclic carotenoids: a model for the alteration of this biosynthetic pathway in Capsicum annuum chromoplasts. Plant J 8: 417-424   DOI   ScienceOn
59 Hugueney P, Romer S, Kuntz M, Camara B (1992) Characterization and molecular cloning of a flavoprotein catalyzing the synthesis of phytofluene and zeta-carotene in Capsicum chromoplasts. Eur J Biochem 209: 399-407   DOI   ScienceOn
60 Deruere J, RomerS, d'Harlingue A, Backhaus RA, Kuntz M, Camara B (1994) Fibril assembly and carotenoid overaccumulation in chromoplasts: a model for supermolecular lipoprotein structure. Plant Cell 6: 119-133   DOI   ScienceOn
61 Eisenreich W, Rohdich F, Bacher A (2001) Deoxyxylulose phosphate pathway to terpenoids. Trends Plant Sci 6: 78-84   DOI   ScienceOn
62 Estevez JM, Cantero A, Romero C, Kawaide H, Jimenez LF, Kuzuyama T, Seto H, Kamiya Y, Leon P (2000) Analysis of the expression of CLA1, a gene that encodes the 1-deoxyxylulose 5phosphate synthase of the 2C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate pathway in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol 124: 95-103   DOI   ScienceOn
63 Giuliano G, Bartley GE, Scolnik PA (1993) Regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis during tomato development. Plant Cell 5: 379 387   DOI   ScienceOn
64 Fraser PD, Romer S. Shipton CA, Mills PB, Kiano JW, Misawa N, Drake RG, Schuch W, Bramley PM (2002) Evaluation of transgenic tomato plants expressing an additional phytoene synthase in a fruit-specific manner. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 1092-1097   DOI   ScienceOn
65 Lange BM, Wildung MR, McCaskill D, Croteau R (1998) A family of transketolases that directs isoprenoid biosynthesis via a mevalonate-independent pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 2100-2104   DOI   ScienceOn
66 Lichtenthaler HK, Schwender J, Disch A, RohmerM (1997) Biosynthesis of isoprenoids in higher plant chloroplasts proceeds via a mevalonate-independent pathways. FEBS Lett 400: 271-274   DOI   ScienceOn
67 Gracia-Asua G, Lang HP, Cogdell RJ, Hunter CN (1998) Carotenoid diversity: a molecular role for the phytoene desaturase step. Trends Plant Sci 3: 445-449   DOI   ScienceOn
68 Ha SH, Lee SW, Kim JG, Hwang YS (1999) The expression of genes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis in pepper. Agric Chem Biotechnol 42: 92-96
69 Hauptmann R, Eschenfeldt WH, English J, Brinkhaus FL (1994) Enhanced carotenoid accumulation in storage organs of genetically engineered plants. US patent 5618988
70 Herz S, Wungsintaweekul J, Schuhr CA, Hecht S, Luttgen H, Sanger S, Fellermerier M, Eisenreich W, ZenkMH, Bacher A, Rohdich F (2000) Biosynthesis of terpenoids: YgbB protein converts 4-diphosphocytidyl-2C-methyl-D-erythritol 2-phosphate to 2C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 2486-2490   DOI   ScienceOn
71 Mann V, Harker M, Peeker I, Hirschberg J (2000) Metabolic engineering of astaxanthin production in tobacco flowers. Nat Biotechnol 18: 888-892   DOI   ScienceOn
72 Hirschberg J (1998) Molecular Biology of Carotenoid Biosynthesis. In: Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H (eds), Carotenoids Vol.3 Biosynthesis and Metabolism, Birkhaeuser Verlag, Basel, Boston, Berlin, pp 149-194
73 Hirschberg J (2001) Carotenoid biosynthesis in flowering plants. Curr Opin Plant Bioi 4: 210-218   DOI   ScienceOn
74 Mandel MA, Feldmann KA, Herrera-Estrella L, Rocha-Sosa M, Leon P (1996) CLA1, a novel gene required for chloroplast development, is highly conserved in evolution. Plant J 9: 649-658   DOI   ScienceOn
75 Mann V, Peeker I, Hirschberg J (1994) Cloning and characterization of the gene for phytoene desaturase (Pds) from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Plant Mol Biol 24: 429-434   DOI   ScienceOn
76 Kumagai MH, Donson J, della-Cioppa G, Harvey D, Hanley K, Grill LK (1995) Cytoplasmic inhibition of carotenoid biosynthesis with virus-derived RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 1679-1683   DOI   ScienceOn
77 Kumagai MH, Keller Y, Bouvier F, Clary D, Camara B (1998) Functional interaction of non-native carotenoids into chloroplasts by viral-derived expression of capsanthin-capsorubin synthase in Nicotiana benthamiana. Plant J 14: 305-315   DOI   ScienceOn
78 Kunz M, Romer S, Hugueney P, Weil JH, Schantz R, Camara B (1992) Identification of a cDNA for the plastid-located geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase from Capsicum annuum: correlative increase in enzyme activity and transcript level during fruit ripening. Plant J 2: 25-34
79 Lange BM, Croteau R (1999b) Isopentenyl diphosphate biosynthesis via a mevalonate-independent pathway: isopentenyl monophosphate kinase catalyses the terminal enzymatic step. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 13714-13719   DOI   ScienceOn
80 Lange BM, CroteauR (1999a) Isoprenoid biosynthesis via a mevalonate independent pathway in plants: cloning and heterologous expression of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase from peppermint. Arch Biochem Biophys 365: 170-174   DOI   ScienceOn
81 Peeker I, Gaboay R, Cunningham FX Jr, Hirschberh J (1996) Cloning and characterization of the cDNA for Iycopene betacyclase from tomato reveals decrease in its expression during fruit ripening. Plant Mol Biol 30: 807-819   DOI   ScienceOn
82 Lois LM, Campos N, RosaPutra S, Danielsen K, Rohmer M, Boronat A (1998) Cloning and characterization of a gene from Escherichia coli encoding a transketolase-like enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of D-l-deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate, a common precursor for isoprenoid, thiamin, and pyridoxol biosynthesis. ProcNatl Acad Sci USA 95: 2105-2110   DOI   ScienceOn
83 Lois LM, Rodriguez-Concepcion M, Gallego F, Campos N, Boronat A (2000) Carotenoid biosynthesis during tomato fruit development: regulatory role of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose synthase. Plant J 22: 503-513   DOI   ScienceOn
84 Lotan T, Hirschberg J (1995) Cloning and expression in Escherichia coil of the gene encoding $\beta$-c-4-oxygenase, that converts $\beta$-carotene to the ketocarotenoid canthaxanthin in Haematococcus pluvialis. FEBS Lett 364: 125-128   DOI   ScienceOn
85 Rohdich F, Wungsintaweekul J, Fellermeier M, Sagner S, Herz S, Kis K, Eisenreich W, Bacher A, Zenk MH (1999) Cytidine 5'-triphosphate-dependent biosynthesis of isoprenoids: YgbP protein of Escherichia coli catalyzes the formation of 4-diphosphocytidyl2C-methyJerythritol. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 11758-11763   DOI
86 Luttgen H, Rohdich F, Herz S, Wungsintaweekul J, HechtS, Schuhr CA, Fellermerier M, Sanger S, ZenkMH, Bacher A, Eisenreich W (2000) Biosynthesis of terpenoids: YchB protein of E. coli phosphorylates the 2-hydroxy group of 4-diphosphocytidyl-2Cmethyl-D-erythritol. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 1062-1067   DOI   ScienceOn
87 Pfander H (1992) Carotenoids: an overview. Meth Enzymol 213: 3-13   DOI
88 Peeker I, Chamovitz D, Linden H, Hirschberh J (1992) A single polypeptide catalyzing the conversion of phytoene to z-carotene is transcriptionally regulated during tomato fruit ripening. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 4962-4966   DOI   ScienceOn
89 Rohdich F, Wungsintaweekul J, Lutgen H, FischerM, Eisenreich W, Schuhr CA, Fellermeier M, Schramek N, Zenk MH, Bacher A (2000b) Biosynthesis of terpenoids: 4-diphosphocytidyl-2-Cmethyl-erythritol kinase from tomato. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 8251-8256   DOI   ScienceOn
90 Marin E, Nussaume L, Quesada A, Gonneau M, Sotta B, Hugueney P, Frey A, Marion-Poll A (1996) Molecular identification of zeaxanthin epoxidase of Nicotiana plumbaginifolia, a gene involved in abscisicacid biosynthesis and corresponding to the ABA locus of Arabidopsis thaliana. EMBO J 15: 2331-2342
91 Niyogi KK, Grossman AR, Bjorkman O (1998) Arabidopsis mutants define a central role for the xanthophyll cycle in the regulation of phtosynthetic energy conversion. Plant Cell 10: 1121-1134   DOI   ScienceOn
92 Misawa N, Mazamoto K, Hori T, Ohtani T, Boger P, Sandmann G (1994) Expression of an Erwinia phytoene desaturase gene not only confers multiple resistance to herbicides interfering with carotenid biosynthesis but also alters xanthophyll metabolism in transgenic plants. Plant J 6: 481-489   DOI   ScienceOn
93 Misawa N, Nakagawa M, Kobayashi K, Yamano S, lzawa Y, Nakamura K, Harashima K (1990) Elucidation of the Erwinia uredouora carotenoid biosynthetic pathway by functional analysis of gene products expressed in Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 172: 6704-6712
94 Misawa N, Shimada H (1998) Metabolic engineering for the production of carotenoids in non- carotenogenic bacteriaand yeasts. J Biotechnol 59: 169-181   DOI   ScienceOn
95 Rosati C, Aquilani R, Dharmapuri S, Pallara P, Marusic C, Tavazza R, Bouvier F, Camara B, Giulano G (2000) Metabolic engineering of beta-carotene and lycopene content in tomato fruit. Plant J 24: 413-420   DOI   ScienceOn
96 Sandmann G (1994) Carotenoid biosynthesis in microorganisms and plants. EurJ Biochem 223: 7-24   DOI   ScienceOn
97 Schledz M, AI-Babili S, von Uting J, Haudruck H, Rabbani S, Kleing H,Beyer P (1996) Phytoene synthase from Narcissus pseudonarcissus: functional expression, galactolipid requirement, topological distribution in chromoplasts and induction during flowering. Plant J 10: 781-792   DOI   ScienceOn