Browse > Article
http://dx.doi.org/10.4490/algae.2017.32.3.3

Seaweed aquaculture: cultivation technologies, challenges and its ecosystem services  

Kim, Jang K. (Department of Marine Science, School of Natural Sciences, Incheon National University)
Yarish, Charles (Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut)
Hwang, Eun Kyoung (Seaweed Research Center, National Institute of Fisheries Science)
Park, Miseon (Southeast Sea Fisheries Research Institute, National Institute of Fisheries Science)
Kim, Youngdae (Southeast Sea Fisheries Research Institute, National Institute of Fisheries Science)
Publication Information
ALGAE / v.32, no.1, 2017 , pp. 1-13 More about this Journal
Abstract
Seaweed aquaculture technologies have developed dramatically over the past 70 years mostly in Asia and more recently in Americas and Europe. However, there are still many challenges to overcome with respect to the science and to social acceptability. The challenges include the development of strains with thermo-tolerance, disease resistance, fast growth, high concentration of desired molecules, the reduction of fouling organisms and the development of more robust and cost efficient farm systems that can withstand storm events in offshore environments. It is also important to note that seaweed aquaculture provides ecosystem services, which improve conditions of the coastal waters for the benefit of other living organisms and the environment. The ecosystem services role of seaweed aquaculture and its economic value will also be quantitatively estimated in this review.
Keywords
ecosystem services; Eucheuma; Gracilaria / Gracilariopsis; Kappaphycus; kelp; Pyropia / Porphyra; Sargassum; seaweed aquaculture;
Citations & Related Records
Times Cited By KSCI : 8  (Citation Analysis)
연도 인용수 순위
1 Getchis, T. S., Rose, C. M., Carey, D., Kelly, S., Bellantuono, K. & Francis, P. 2008. A guide to marine aquaculture permitting in Connecticut. Connecticut Sea Grant College Program, Groton, CT, 140 pp.
2 Gevaert, F., Davoult, D., Creach, A., Kling, R., Janquin, M. -A., Seuront, L. & Lemoine, Y. 2001. Carbon and nitrogen content of Laminaria saccharina in the eastern English Channel: biometrics and seasonal variations. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. 81:727-734.   DOI
3 Gorman, L., Kraemer, G. P., Yarish, C., Boo, S. M. & Kim, J. K. 2017. The effects of temperature on the growth and nitrogen content of Gracilaria vermiculophylla and Gracilaria tikvahiae from LIS, USA. Algae 32:57-66.   DOI
4 Chopin, T., Robinson, S. M. C., Troell, M., Neori, A., Buschmann, A. H. & Fang, J. 2008. Multitrophic integration for sustainable marine aquaculture. In Jorgensen, S. E. & Fath, B. D. (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Ecolog. Vol. 3. Ecological Engineering. Elsevier, Oxford, pp. 2463-2475.
5 McVey, J. P., Stickney, R. R., Yarish, C. & Chopin, T. 2002. Aquatic polyculture balanced ecosystem management: new paradigms for seafood production. In Stickney, R. R. & McVey, J. P. (Eds.) Responsible Marine Aquaculture. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, pp. 91-104.
6 Miura, A. 1984. A new variety and a new form of Porphyra (Bangiales, Rhodophyta) from Japan: Porphyra tenera Kjellman var. tamatsuensis Miura, var. nov. and P. yezoensis Ueda form. narawaensis Miura, form. nov. J. Tokyo Univ. Fish. 71:1-37.
7 Mumford, T. F. & Miura, A. 1988. Porphyra as food: cultivation and economics. In Lembi, C. A. & Waaland, J. R. (Eds.) Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge University Press, London, pp. 87-117.
8 NASA. 2017. NASA, NOAA data show 2016 warmest year on record globally. Available from: https://www.nasa.gov/ press-release/nasa-noaa-data-show-2016-warmestyear- on-record-globally. Accessed Jan 12, 2017.
9 Neori, A., Chopin, T., Troell, M., Buschmann, A. H., Kraemer, G. P., Halling, C., Shpigel, M. & Yarish, C. 2004. Integrated aquaculture: rationale, evolution and state of the art emphasizing seaweed biofiltration in modern aquaculture. Aquaculture 231:361-391.   DOI
10 Neori, A., Troell, M., Chopin, T., Yarish, C., Critchley, A. & Buschmann, A. H. 2007. The need for a balanced ecosystem approach to blue revolution aquaculture. Environment 49:36-43.
11 Niwa, K., Iida, S., Kato, A., Kawai, H., Kikuchi, N., Kobiyama, A. & Aruga, Y. 2009. Genetic diversity and introgression in two cultivated species (Porphyra yezoensis and Porphyra tenera) and closely related wild species of Porphyra (Bangiales, Rhodophyta). J. Phycol. 45:493-502.   DOI
12 Oliveira, E. C., Alveal, K. & Anderson, R. J. 2000. Mariculture of the agar-producing Gracilarioid red algae. Rev. Fish. Sci. 8:345-377.   DOI
13 Costanza, R., de Groot, R., Sutton, P., van der Ploeg, S., Anderson, S. J., Kubiszewski, I., Farber, S. & Turner, R. K. 2014. Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Glob. Environ. Change 26:152-158.   DOI
14 Chopin, T., Yarish, C., Wilkes, R., Belyea, E., Lu, S. & Mathieson, A. 1999. Developing Porphyra/salmon integrated aquaculture for bioremediation and diversification of the aquaculture industry. J. Appl. Phycol. 11:463-472.   DOI
15 Chung, I. K, Kang, Y. H., Yarish, C., Kraemer, G. P. & Lee, J. A. 2002. Application of seaweed cultivation to the bioremediation of nutrient-rich effluent. Algae 17:187-194.   DOI
16 Corey, P., Kim, J. K., Duston, J. & Garbary, D. J. 2014. Growth and nutrient uptake by Palmaria palmata integrated with Atlantic halibut in a land-based aquaculture system. Algae 29:35-45.   DOI
17 Corey, P., Kim, J. K., Garbary, D. J., Prithiviraj, B. & Duston, J. 2012. Bioremediation potential of Chondrus crispus (Basin Head) and Palmaria palmata: effect of temperature and high nitrate on nutrient removal. J. Appl. Phycol. 24:441-448.   DOI
18 Correa, T., Gutierrez, A., Flores, R., Buschmann, A. H., Cornejo, P. & Bucarey, C. 2016. Production and economic assessment of giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera cultivation for abalone feed in the south of Chile. Aquac. Res. 47:698-707.   DOI
19 Camus, C., Ballerino, P., Delgado, R., Olivera-Nappa, a., Leyton, C. & Buschmann, A. H. 2016. Scaling up bioethanol production from the farmed brown macroalgae Macrocystis pyrifera in Chile. Biofuels Bioprod. Biorefin. 10:673-685.   DOI
20 Chen, T. T., Lin, C. M., Chen, M. J., Lo, J. H., Chiou, P. P., Gong, H. Y., Wu, J. L., Chen, M. H. C. & Yarish, C. 2015. Principles and application of transgenic technology in marine organisms. In Kim, S. -K. (Ed.) Handbook of Marine Biotechnology. Springer, Berlin, pp. 387-412.
21 SINTEF. 2014. A new Norwegian bioeconomy based on cultivation and processing of seaweeds: opportunities and research and development needs. SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture, Norway. Available from: http://www. innovasjonnorge.no/contentassets/95273c625e1c4b4caf8b4d0a36020dc0/2014-sintef---seaweed-in-thebioeconomy. pdf. Accessed Jan 23, 2017.
22 Xie, E. Y., Liu, D. C., Jia, C., Chen, X. L. & Yang, B. 2013. Artificial seed production and cultivation of the edible brown alga Sargassum naozhouense Tseng et Lu. J. Appl. Phycol. 25:513-522.   DOI
23 Yokoya, N. S., Hirotaka, K., Obika, H. & Litamura, T. 1999. Effects of environmental factors and plant growth regulators on growth of the red alga Gracilaria vermiculophylla from Shikoku Island, Japan. Hydrobiologia 398/399:339-347.   DOI
24 Zhang, J., Huo, Y., Wu, H., Yu, K., Kim, J. K., Yarish, C., Qin, Y., Liu, C., Xu, R. & He, P. 2014. The origin of the Ulva macroalgal blooms in the Yellow Sea in 2013. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 89:276-283.   DOI
25 Zhang, J., Kim, J. K., Yarish, C. & He, P. 2016. The expansion of Ulva prolifera O.F. Müller macroalgal blooms in the Yellow Sea, PR China, through asexual reproduction. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 104:101-106.   DOI
26 Shin, J. -A. 2003. Inheritance mode of some characters of Porphyra yezoensis (Bangiales, Rhodophyta) II. Yield, photosynthetic pigment content, red rot disease-resistance, color, luster and volatile sulfur compounds concentration. Algae 18:83-88.   DOI
27 Sohn, C. H. 1998. The seaweed resources of Korea. In Critchley, A. T. & Ohno, M. (Eds.) Seaweed Resources of the World. Japan International Cooperation Agency, Yokosuka, pp. 15-33.
28 Wu, H., Kim, J. K., Huo, Y., Zhang, J. & He, P. 2017. Nutrient removal ability of seaweeds on Pyropia yezoensis aquaculture rafts in China's radial sandbanks. Aquat. Bot. 137:72-79.   DOI
29 Park, J., Kim, J. K., Kong, J. -A., Depuydt, S., Brown, M. T. & Han, T. 2017. Implications of rising temperatures for gametophyte performance of two kelp species from Arctic waters. Bot. Mar. 60:39-48.
30 Park, J., Jin, G. -S., Hwang, M. S., Brown, M. T. & Han, T. 2016. Toxicity tests using the kelp Undaria pinnatifida for heavy metal risk assessment. Toxicol. Environ. Health. Sci. 8:86-95.   DOI
31 Patwary, M. U. & van der Meer, J. P. 1992. Genetic and breeding of cultivated seaweeds. Algae 7:281-318.
32 Peng, Y., Xie, E., Zheng, K., Fredimoses, M., Yang, X., Zhou, X., Wang, Y., Yang, B., Lin, X., Liu, J. & Liu, Y. 2013. Nutritional and chemical composition and antiviral activity of cultivated seaweed Sargassum naozhouense Tseng et Lu. Mar. Drugs 11:20-32.
33 Pereira, R. & Yarish, C. 2008. Mass production of marine macroalgae. In Jorgensen, S. E. & Fath, B. D. (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Ecology. Vol. 3. Ecological Engineering. Elsevier, Oxford, pp. 2236-2247.
34 Pereira, R. & Yarish, C. 2010. The role of Porphyra in sustainable culture systems: physiology and applications. In Israel, A. & Einav, R. (Eds.) Role of Seaweeds in a Globally Changing Environment. Springer Publishers, New York, pp. 339-354.
35 Kim, J. K., Yarish, C. & Pereira, R. 2016. Tolerances to hypoosmotic and temperature stresses in native and invasive species of Gracilaria (Rhodophyta). Phycologia 55:257-264.   DOI
36 Koehl, M. A. R., Silk, W. K., Liang, H. & Mahadevan, L. 2008. How kelp produce blade shapes suited to different flow regimes: a new wrinkle. Integr. Comp. Biol. 48:834-851.   DOI
37 Kraemer, G. P., Kim, J. K. & Yarish, C. 2014. Seaweed aquaculture: bioextraction of nutrients to reduce eutrophication. Association of Massachusetts Wetland Scientists Newsletter 89:16-17.
38 Barbier, E. B. 2013. Valuing ecosystem services for coastal wetland protection and restoration: progress and challenges. Resources 2:213-230.   DOI
39 Ask, E. I. & Azanza, R. V. 2002. Advances in cultivation technology of commercial eucheumatoid species: a re-view with suggestions for future research. Aquaculture 206:257-277.   DOI
40 Augyte, S., Yarish, C., Redmond, S. & Kim, J. K. Cultivation of a morphologically distinct strain of the sugar kelp, Saccharina latissima forma angustissima, from coastal Maine, USA, with implications for ecosystem services. J. Appl. Phycol. (in press).
41 Barrington, K., Chopin, T. & Robinson, S. 2009. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) in marine temperate waters. In Soto, D. (Ed.) Integrated Mariculture: A Global Eeview. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper, No. 529. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, pp. 7-46.
42 Bjerregaard, R., Valderrama, D., Radulovich, R., Diana, J., Capron, M., Mckinnie, C. A., Cedric, M., Hopkins, K., Yarish, C., Goudey, C. & Forster, J. 2016. Seaweed aquaculture for food security, income generation and environmental health in Tropical Developing Countries. Report #107147. Available from: http://documents.worldbank. org/curated/en/947831469090666344/Seaweed-aquaculture- for-food-security-income-generation-and-environmental- health-in-Tropical-Developing-Countries; jsessionid=4sLY8b149Hwa-8ramT5do35G. Accessed Jan 23, 2017.
43 Blouin, N. A., Brodie, J. A., Grossman, A. C., Xu, P. & Brawley, S. H. 2011. Porphyra: a marine crop shaped by stress. Trends Plant Sci. 16:29-37.   DOI
44 Weinberger, F., Buchholz, B., Karez, R. & Wahl, M. 2008. The invasive red alga Gracilaria vermiculophylla in the Baltic Sea: adaptation to brackish water may compensate for light limitation. Aquat. Biol. 3:251-264.   DOI
45 Stekoll, M. S. & Peeples, T. N. 2016. Marine plant aquaculture in southeast Alaska. Annual Meeting of the Phycological Society of America. pp. 38-39. Available from: http://static1.squarespace.com/static/543d47aee4b0f40897fde 705/t/5790efa11b631be8a7a1f64a/1469116323834/ Full+Final+Program.pdf. Accessed Jan 23, 2017.
46 Mathieson, A. C., Hehre, E. J., Dawes, C. J. & Neefus, C. D. 2008. An historical comparison of seaweed populations from Casco Bay, Maine. Rhodora 110:1-102.   DOI
47 Broch, O. J., Ellingsen, I. H., Forbord, S., Wang, X., Volent, Z., Alver, M. O., Handå, A., Andresen, K., Slagstad, D., Reitan, K. I., Olsen, Y. & Skjermo, J. 2013. Modelling the cultivation and bioremediation potential of the kelp Saccharina latissima in close proximity to an exposed salmon farm in Norway. Aquac. Environ. Interact. 4:186-206.
48 Vairappan, C. A., Chung, C. S., Hurtado, A. Q., Soya, F. E., Lhonneur, G. B. & Critchley, A. 2009. Distribution and symtoms of epiphytic infection in major carrageenophyte- producing farms. In Nineteenth International Seaweed Symposium, Vol. 2, Springer, Amsterdam, pp. 27-33.
49 Valderrama, D., Cai, J., Hishamunda, N., Ridler, N., Neish, I. C., Hurtado, A. Q., Msuya, F. E., Krishnan, M., Narayanakumar, R., Kronen, M., Robledo, D., Gasca-Leyva, E. & Fraga, J. 2015. The economics of Kappaphycus seaweed cultivation in developing countries: a comparative analysis of farming systems. Aquac. Econ. Manag. 19:251-277.   DOI
50 Valero, M., Guillemin, M. -L., Destombe, C., Jacquemin, B., Gachon, C. M. M., Badis, Y., Buschmann, A. H., Camus, C. & Faugeron, S. 2017. Perspectives on domestication research for sustainable seaweed aquaculture. Perspect. Phycol. Advanced online publication. https://doi. org/10.1127/pip/2017/0066.   DOI
51 Wells, M. L., Potin, P., Craigie, J. S., Raven, J. A., Merchabnt, S. S, Helliwell, K. E., Smith, A. G., Camire, M. E. & Brawley, S. H. 2016. Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding. J. Appl. Phycol. Advanced online publication. https://doi/org/10.1007/ s10811-016-0974-5.   DOI
52 Li, X., Cong, Y., Yang, G., Shi, Y., Qu, S., Li, Z., Wang, G., Zhang, Z., Luo, S., Dai, H., Xie, J., Jiang, G., Liu, J. & Wang, T. 2007. Trait evaluation and trial cultivation of Dongfang No. 2, the hybrid of a male gametophyte clone of Laminaria longissima (Laminariales, Phaeophyta) and a female one of L. japonica. J. Appl. Phycol. 19:139-151.   DOI
53 Langan, R. & Horton, F. 2005. Design, operation and economics of submerged longline mussel culture in the open ocean. Bull. Aquac. Assoc. Can. 103:11-20.
54 Largo, D. B., Fukami, K. & Nishijima, T. 1995. Occasional pathogenic bacteria promoting ice-ice disease in the carrageenan-producing red algae Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum (Solieriaceae, Gigartinales, Rhodophyta). J. Appl. Phycol. 7:545-554.   DOI
55 Levine, I. A. & Sahoo, D. 2010. Porphyra: harvesting gold from the sea. I.K. International Publihing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 92 pp.
56 Hwang, E. K., Gong, Y. G. & Park, C. S. 2012. Cultivation of a hybrid of free-living gametophytes between Undariopsis peterseniana and Undaria pinnatifida: morphological aspects and cultivation period. J. Appl. Phycol. 24:401-408.   DOI
57 Kim, J. K., Mao, Y., Kraemer, G. & Yarish, C. 2015c. Growth and pigment content of Gracilaria tikvahiae McLachlan under fluorescent and LED lighting. Aquaculture 436:52-57.   DOI
58 Kim, J. K. & Yarish, C. 2014. Development of a sustainable land-based Gracilaria cultivation system. Algae 29:217- 225.   DOI
59 Hwang, E. K., Gong, Y. G., Hwang, I. -K., Park, E. -J. & Park, C. S. 2013. Cultivation of the two perennial brown algae Ecklonia cava and E. stolonifera for abalone feeds in Korea. J. Appl. Phycol. 25:825-829.   DOI
60 Hwang, E. K., Ha, D. S., Baek, J. M., Wee, M. Y. & Park, C. S. 2006a. Effects of pH and salinity on the cultivated brown alga Sargassum fulvellum and associated animals. Algae 21:317-321.   DOI
61 Hwang, E. K., Park, C. S. & Baek, J. M. 2006b. Artificial seed production and cultivation of the edible brown alga, Sargassum fulvellum (Turner) C. Agardh: developing a new species for seaweed cultivation in Korea. J. Appl. Phycol. 18:251-257.   DOI
62 Johnson, R. B., Kim, J. K., Armbruster, L. C. & Yarish, C. 2014. Nitrogen allocation of Gracilaria tikvahiae grown in urbanized estuaries of Long Island Sound and New York City, USA: a preliminary evaluation of ocean farmed Gracilaria for alternative fish feeds. Algae 29:227-235.   DOI
63 Kawashima, Y. & Tokuda, H. 1993. Regeneration from the callus of Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar (Laminariales, Phaeophyta). Hydrobiologia 260/261:385-389.   DOI
64 Marinho, G. S., Holdt, S. L., Birkeland, M. J. & Angelidaki, I. 2015. Commercial cultivation and bioremediation potential of sugar kelp, Saccharina latissima, in Danish waters. J. Appl. Phycol. 27:1963-1973.   DOI
65 Li, X., Zhang, Z., Qu, S., Liang, G., Sun, J., Zhao, N., Cui, C., Cao, Z., Li, Y., Pan, J., Yu, S., Wang, Q., Li, X., Luo, S., Song, S., Guo, L. & Yang, G. 2016. Improving seedless kelp (Saccharina japonica) during its domestication by hybridizing gametophytes and seedling-raising from sporophytes. Sci. Rep. 6:21255.   DOI
66 Lindell, S., Green-Beach, E., Bailey, D., Beals, M., Kim, J. K. & Yarish, C. 2015. Multi-cropping seaweed Gracilaria tikvahiae with oysters for nutrient bioextraction and sea vegetables in Waquoit Bay, MA. In National Shellfisheries Association 107th Annual Meeting, National Shellfisheries Association, Monterey, CA.
67 Liu, D., Keesing, J. K., Xing, Q. & Shi, P. 2009. World's largest macroalgal bloom caused by expansion of seaweed aquaculture in China. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 58:888-895.   DOI
68 Buschmann, A. H., Prescott, S., Potin, P., Faugeron, S., Vasquez, J. A., Camus, C., Infante, J., Hernandez-Gonzalez, M. C., Gutierrez, A. & Varela, D. A. 2014. The status of kelp exploitation and marine agronomy, with emphasis on Macrocystis pyrifera, in Chile. Adv. Bot. Res. 71:161-188.
69 Buck, B. H. & Buchholz, C. M. 2004. The offshore-ring: a new system design for the open ocean aquaculture of macroalgae. J. Appl. Phycol. 16:355-368.   DOI
70 Buschmann, A. H., Hernandez-Gonzalez, M. C. & Varela, D. A. 2008a. Seaweed future cultivation in Chile: perspectives and challenges. Int. J. Environ. Pollut. 33:432-456.   DOI
71 Buschmann, A. H., Varela, D. A., Hernandez-Gonzalez, M. C. & Huovinen, P. 2008b. Opportunities and challenges for the development of an integrated seaweed-based aquaculture activity in Chile: determining the physiological capabilities of Macrocystis and Gracilaria as biofilters. J. Appl. Phycol. 20:571-577.   DOI
72 Caines, S., Manriquez-Hernandez, J. A., Duston, J., Corey, P. & Garbary, D. J. 2014. Intermittent aeration affects the bioremediation potential of two red algae cultured in finfish effluent. J. Appl. Phycol. 26:2173-2181.   DOI
73 Hanisak, M. D. 1987. Cultivation of Gracilaria and other macroalgae in Florida for energy production. In Bird, K. T. & Benson, P. H. (Eds.) Seaweed Cultivation for Renewable Resources. Elsevier, New York, pp. 191-218.
74 Wu, H., Huo, Y., Han, F., Liu, Y. & He, P. 2015. Bioremediation using Gracilaria chouae co-cultured with Sparus macrocephalus to manage the nitrogen and phosphorous balance in an IMTA system in Xiangshan Bay, China. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 91:272-279.   DOI
75 Guillemin, M. L., Faugeron, S., Destombe, C., Viard, F., Correa, J. A. & Valero, M. 2008. Genetic variation in wild and cultivated populations of the haploid-diploid red alga Gracilaria chilensis: how farming practices favor asexual reproduction and heterozygosity. Evolution 62:1500-1519.   DOI
76 Guiry, M. D. & Guiry, G. M. 2016. AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Available from: http://www.algaebase.org. Accessed Jun 21, 2016.
77 Hafting, J. T., Craigie, J. S., Stengel, D. B., Loureiro, R. R., Buschmann, A. H., Yarish, C., Edwards, M. D. & Critchley, A. T. 2015. Prospects and challenges for industrial production of seaweed bioactives. J. Phycol. 51:821-837.   DOI
78 Han, T., Kong, J. A., Kang, H. G., Kim, S. J., Jin, G. S., Choi, H. & Brown, M. T. 2011. Sensitivity of spore germination and germ tube elongation of Saccharina japonica to metal exposure. Ecotoxicology 20:2056-2068.   DOI
79 Hanisak, M. D. & Ryther, J. H. 1984. Cultivation biology of Gracilaria tikvahiae in the United States. Hydrobiologia 116/117:295-298.   DOI
80 Abreu, M. H., Pereira, R., Buschmann, A. H., Sousa-Pinto, I. & Yarish, C. 2011a. Nitrogen uptake responses of Gracilaria vermiculophylla (Ohmi) Papenfuss under combined and single addition of nitrate and ammonium. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 407:190-199.   DOI
81 Abreu, M. H., Pereira, R., Yarish, C., Buschmann, A. H. & Sousa-Pinto, I. 2011b. IMTA with Gracilaria vermiculophylla: productivity and nutrient removal performance of the seaweed in a land-based pilot scale system. Aquaculture 312:77-87.   DOI
82 Schaffelke, B. & Klumpp, D. W. 1998. Nutrient-limited growth of the coral reef macroalga Sargassum baccularia and experimental growth enhancement by nutrient addition in continuous flow culture. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 164:199- 211.   DOI
83 Shin, J. -A. 1999. Crossing between Porphyra yezoensis and P. tenera. Algae 14:73-77.
84 Pereira, R., Yarish, C. & Critchley, A. T. 2013. Seaweed aquaculture for human foods in land based and IMTA systems. In Meyers, R. A. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer, New York, pp. 9109-9128.
85 Qi, Z., Liu, H., Li, B., Mao, Y., Jiang, Z., Zhang, J. & Fang, J. 2010. Suitability of two seaweeds, Gracilaria lemaneiformis and Sargassum pallidum, as feed for the abalone Haliotis discus hannai Ino. Aquaculture 300:189-193.   DOI
86 Raikar, S. V., Ima, M. & Fujita, Y. 2001. Effects of temperature, salinity and light intensity on the growth of Gracilaria spp. (Gracilariales, Rhodophyta) from Japan, Malaysia and India. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 30:98-104.
87 Rawson, M. V. Jr., Chen, C., Ji, R., Zhu, M., Wang, D., Wang, L., Yarish, C., Sullivan, J. B., Chopin, T. & Carmona, R. 2002. Understanding the interaction of extractive and fed aquaculture using ecosystem modeling. In Stickney, R. R. & McVey, J. P. (Eds.) Responsible Marine Aquaculture. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, pp. 263-296.
88 Redmond, S., Green, L., Yarish, C., Kim, J. & Neefus, C. 2014a. New England seaweed culture handbook: nursery systems. Connecticut Sea Grant CTSG-14-01. Available from: http://seagrant.uconn.edu/publications/aquaculture/ handbook.pdf. Accessed Jan 23, 2017.
89 He, P., Xu, S., Zhang, H., Wen, S., Dai, Y., Lin, S. & Yarish, C. 2008. Bioremediation efficiency in removal of dissolved nutrients by the red seaweed, Porphyra yezoensis, cultivated in open sea. Water Res. 42:1281-1289.   DOI
90 Hayashi, L., Hurtado, A. Q., Msuya, F. E., Bleicher-Lhonneur, G. & Critchley, A. T. 2010. A review of Kappaphycus farming: prospects and constraints. In Israel, A., Einav, R. & Seckbach, J. (Eds.) Seaweeds and Their Role in Globally Changing Environments: Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology. Springer, New York, pp. 251- 283.
91 Kim, G. H., Moon, K. -H., Kim, J. -Y., Shim, J. & Klochkova, T. A. 2014a. A revaluation of algal diseases in Korean Pyropia (Porphyra) sea farms and their economic impact. Algae 29:249-265.   DOI
92 Kim, J. K., Duston, J., Corey, P. & Garbary, D. J. 2013a. Marine finfish effluent bioremediation: effects of stocking density and temperature on nitrogen removal capacity of Chondrus crispus and Palmaria palmata (Rhodophyta). Aquaculture 414-415:210-216.   DOI
93 Kim, J. K., Kottuparambil, S., Moh, S. H., Lee, T. K., Kim, Y. -J., Rhee, J. -S., Choi, E. -M., Kim, B. H., Yu, Y. J., Yarish, C. & Han, T. 2015a. Potential applications of nuisance microalgal blooms. J. Appl. Phycol. 27:1223-1234.   DOI
94 Kim, J. K., Kraemer, G. P., Neefus, C. D., Chung, I. K. & Yarish, C. 2007. Effects of temperature and ammonium on growth, pigment production and nitrogen uptake by four species of Porphyra (Bangiales, Rhodophyta) native to the New England coast. J. Appl. Phycol. 19:431-440.   DOI
95 Kim, J. K., Kraemer, G. P. & Yarish, C. 2013b. Emersion induces nitrogen release and alteration of nitrogen metabolism in the intertidal genus Porphyra. PLos ONE 8:e69961.   DOI
96 Alamsjah, M. A. 2010. Producing new variety of Gracilaria sp. through cross breeding. Res. J. Fish. Hydrobiol. 5:159- 167.
97 Kim, J. K., Kraemer, G. P. & Yarish, C. 2014b. Field scale evaluation of seaweed aquaculture as a nutrient bioextraction strategy in Long Island Sound and the Bronx River Estuary. Aquaculture 433:148-156.   DOI
98 Kim, J. K., Kraemer, G. P. & Yarish, C. 2015b. Use of sugar kelp aquaculture in Long Island Sound and the Bronx River Estuary for nutrient extraction. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 531:155-166.   DOI
99 Kerrison, P. D., Stanley, M. S., Edwards, M. D., Black, K. D. & Hughes, A. D. 2015. The cultivation of European kelp for bioenergy: site and species selection. Biomass Bioenergy 80:229-242.   DOI
100 Abreu, M. H., Varela, D. A., Henriquez, L., Villarroel, A., Yarish, C., Sousa-Pinto, I. & Buschmann, A. H. 2009. Traditional vs. integrated multi-trophic aquaculture of Gracilaria chilensis C. J. Bird, J. McLachlan & E. C. Oliveira: productivity and physiological performance. Aquaculture 293:211-220.   DOI
101 Asare, S. O. & Harlin, M. M. 1983. Seasonal fluctuations in tissue nitrogen for five species of perennial macroalgae in Rhode Island Sound. J. Phycol. 19:254-257.   DOI
102 Huo, Y., Han, H., Hua, L., Wei, Z., Yu, K., Shi, H., Kim, J. K., Yarish, C. & He, P. 2016. Tracing the origin of green macroalgal blooms based on the large scale spatio-temporal distribution of Ulva microscopic propagules and settled mature Ulva vegetative thalli in coastal regions of the Yellow Sea, China. Harmful Algae 59:91-99.   DOI
103 He, P. & Yarish, C. 2006. The developmental regulation of mass cultures of free-living conchocelis for commercial net seeding of Porphyra leucosticta from Northeast America. Aquaculture 257:373-381.   DOI
104 Hou, J. & Jin, Y. 2005. The healing power of Chinese herbs and medicinal recipes. Haworth Press, Inc., New York, 662 pp.
105 Hu, C., Li, D., Chen, C., Ge, J., Muller-Karger, F. E., Liu, J., Yu, F. & He, M. -X. 2010. On the recurrent Ulva prolifera blooms in the Yellow Sea and East China Sea. J. Geophys. Res. 115:C05017.
106 Hurtado, A. Q., Critchley, A. T., Trespoey, A. & Bleicher Lhonneur, G. 2006. Occurrence of Polysiphonia epiphytes in Kappaphycus farms at Calaguas Is., Camarines Norte, Phillippines. J. Appl. Phycol. 18:301-306.   DOI
107 Hwang, E. K., Cho, Y. C. & Sohn, C. H. 1998. Reuse of holdfasts in Hizikia cultivation. J. Korean Fish. Soc. 32:112-116.
108 Dean, P. R. & Hurd, C. L. 2007. Seasonal growth, erosion rates, and nitrogen and photosynthetic ecophysiology of Undaria pinnatifida (Heterokontophyta) in southern New Zealand. J. Phycol. 43:1138-1148.   DOI
109 Redmond, S., Kim, J. K., Yarish, C., Pietrak, M. & Bricknell, I. 2014b. Culture of Sargassum in Korea: techniques and potential for culture in the U.S. Orono, ME: Maine Sea Grant College Program. Available from: http://seagrant. umaine.edu/extension/korea-aquaculture. Accessed Jan 23, 2017.
110 Cottier-Cook, E. J., Nagabhatla, N., Badis, Y., Campbell, M. L., Chopin, T., Dai, W., Fang, J., He, P., Hewitt, C. L., Kim, G. H., Huo, Y., Jiang, Z., Kema, G., Li, X., Liu, F., Liu, H., Liu, Y., Lu, Q., Luo, Q., Mao, Y., Msuya, F. E., Rebours, C., Shen, H., Stentiford, G. D., Yarish, C., Wu, H., Yang, X., Zhang, J., Zhou, Y. & Gachon, C. M. M. 2016. Safeguarding the future of the global seaweed aquaculture industry. United Nation University (INWEH) and Scottish Association for Marine Science Policy Brief, South Hamilton, ON, 12 pp.
111 Rensel, J., Bright, K., King, G. & Siegrist, Z. 2011. Integrated fish-shellfish mariculture in Puget Sound. NOAA Final report. 3-31-2011. NA08OAR4170860. NOAA National Marine Aquaculture Initiative, Rensel Associates, Arlington, WA, 82 pp.
112 Robertson-Andersson, D. V., Wilson, D. T., Bolton, J. J., Anderson, R. J. & Maneveldt, G. W. 2009. Rapid assessment of tissue nitrogen in cultivated Gracilaria gracilis (Rhodophyta) and Ulva lactuca (Chlorophyta). Afr. J. Aquat. Sci. 34:169-172.   DOI
113 Robinson, N., Winberg, P. & Kirkendale, L. 2013. Genetic improvement of macroalgae: status to date and needs for the future. J. Appl. Phycol. 25:703-716.   DOI
114 Rose, J. M., Bricker, S. B., Deonarine, S., Ferreira, J. G., Getchis, T., Grant, J., Kim, J. K., Krumholz, J. S., Kraemer, G. P., Stephenson, K., Wikfors, G. H. & Yarish, C. 2015. Nutrient bioextraction. In Meyers, R. A. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer, New York, pp. 1-33.
115 Sahoo, D. & Ohno, M. 2003. Culture of Kappaphycus alvarezii in deep water and nitrogen enriched medium. Bull. Mar. Sci. Fish. 22:89-96.
116 Sahoo, D. & Yarish, C. 2005. Mariculture of seaweeds. In Andersen, R. A. (Ed.) Phycological Methods: Algal Culturing Techniques. Academic Press, New York, pp. 219-237.
117 Schaffelke, B. 2001. Surface alkaline phosphatase activities of macroalgae on coral reefs of the central Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Coral Reefs 19:310-317.   DOI
118 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2017. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. Available from: http://www.fao.org/fishery/en. Accessed Jan 23, 2017.
119 Dillehay, T. D., Ramirez, C., Pino, M., Collins, M. B., Rossen, J. & Pino-Navarro, J. D. 2008. Monte Verde: seaweed, food, medicine, and the peopling of South America. Science 320:784-786.   DOI
120 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2015. World fertilizer trends and outlook to 2019. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5627e.pdf. Accessed Jan 23, 2017.
121 Fowler-Walker, M. J., Wernberg, T. & Connell, S. D. 2006. Differences in kelp morphology between wave sheltered and exposed localities: morphologically plastic or fixed traits? Mar. Biol. 148:755-767.   DOI
122 Gerard, V. A. 1997. The role of nitrogen nutrition in high-temperature tolerance of the kelp, Laminaria saccharina (Chromophyta). J. Phycol. 33:800-810.   DOI