Browse > Article

A comprehensive review of the comparative studies of Korean(Panax ginseng) and American(Panax quinquefolium) Ginsengs on the Thermogenic Response  

Nam, Ki Yeul (Dept. of medicinal crop/ginseng, Chungnam Agriculture Meister College)
Yang, Byung Wook (Leaders in INdustry-university Cooperation+ (LINC+), Semyung University)
Shin, Wang Soo (Central Research Institute, Korean Ginseng Research Co., Ltd.)
Park, Jong Dae (Central Research Institute, Korean Ginseng Research Co., Ltd.)
Publication Information
Korean Journal of Pharmacognosy / v.49, no.3, 2018 , pp. 203-218 More about this Journal
Abstract
It has been extensively known in the high temperature regions such as southern China and south east Asia that Korean ginseng(Panax ginseng) intake raises body heat, while American ginseng(Panax quinquefolium) lowers it, based upon oriental medicine. This is likely due to the misunderstanding of the conception that Korean ginseng shows a warm property, resulting in enhanced blood circulation and stimulation of metabolism. It's further supported by the fact that current scientific studies have shown no notable side effects. Moreover, it has been demonstrated in animal experimental test that Korean ginseng shows a complementary effect in a high temperature environment, together with scientific evidence of a preventive effect of ginseng saponin against cold conditions, suggesting it to exhibit an adaptogenic effect normalizing the body under abnormal body conditions. However, there is a shortage of studies published concerning comparative clinical and animal studies of Korean and American ginsengs, and also, on natives of high temperature countries. Therefore, a further placebo-controlled clinical study has to be considered to elucidate scientifically clinical evaluation of Korean and American ginsengs on the body heat. In this article, we summarize the scientific publications reporting the clinical comparative study of Korean and American ginsengs on body heat response.
Keywords
Korean ginseng; Panax ginseng; American ginseng; Panax quinquefolium; Thermogenic effect; Comparative clinical study;
Citations & Related Records
Times Cited By KSCI : 3  (Citation Analysis)
연도 인용수 순위
1 Nabata H., Sato, H. and Takagi, K. (1973) Pharmacological studies of netural saponins (GNS) of Panax ginseng root. Japan J. Pharmacol. 23: 29-41.   DOI
2 Yuan, W. X., Wu, X. J., Yang, F. X., Shang, X. H. and Zhang, L. L. (1989) Effects of ginseng root saponins on brain monoamines and serum corticosterone in heat-stressed mice. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao 10: 492-496.
3 Bhargava, H. N. and Ramarao, P. (1991) The effect of Panax ginseng on the development of tolerance to the pharmacological actions of morphine in the rat. Gen. Pharmacol. 22: 521-525.   DOI
4 Xiao, H., Tan, C., Yang, G. and Dou, D. (2017) The effect of red ginseng and ginseng leaves on the substance and energy metabolism in hypothyroidism rats. J. Ginseng Res. 41: 556-565.   DOI
5 Cheng, X. J., Yin. C. J., Qui J. and Zou, S. Q. (1986) Comparison of action of Panax ginsenoside and Quinoquenoside on antiwarm stress in mice. J. of Shenyang College of Pharmacy 3: 170-172.
6 Cha, T. W., Kim, M., Kim, M., Chae, J. S. and Lee, J. H. (2016) Blood pressure-lowering effect of Korean red ginseng associated with decreased circulating Lp-PLA activity and lysophosphatidylcholines and increased dihydrobiopterin level in prehypertensive subjects. Hypertens. Res. 39: 449-456.   DOI
7 Stavro, P. M., Woo, M., Heim, T. F., Leiter, L. A. and Vuksan, V. (2005) North American ginseng exerts a neutral effect on blood pressure in individuals with hypertension. Hypertension 46: 406-411.   DOI
8 Stavro, P. M. (2006) Long-term intake of North American ginseng has no effect on 24-hour blood pressure and renal function. Hypertension 47.
9 Kwan, C. Y. (1998) Differential vascular effects of Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolius extract. Proceedings of the 1st European Ginseng Congress, Marburg, Germany 45-53.
10 Kim, D. H., Jun, X., Zhang, L. X., Xu, Y. H., Kim, Y. C., Bang, K. H., Kim, J. U., Cha, S. W., Chang, I. B. and Li, L. (2015) Study on truth of fire-heat symptoms and adverse reation of Panax ginseng. Proceedings of the Medicinal Crop Society Conference. The Korean Society of Medicinal Crop. Science 201: 3-14.
11 Kwan, C. Y. (1999) The Yin and Yang of vascular effects of ginseng: New evidence for and old concept. Abstracts of International '99 Ginseng conference. 1999 Jul 9-11, Hong Kong 45(A29).
12 Kwan, C. Y. and Kwan, T. K. (2000) Effects of Panax notoginseng saponins on vascular endothelial cells in vitro. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 21: 1101-1105.
13 Kang, M., Yoshimatsu, H., Oohara, A., Kurokawa, M., Ogawa, R. and Sakata, T. (1995) Ginsenoside Rg1 modulates ingestive behavior and thermal response induced by interleukin-1 beta in rats. Physiol. Behav. 57: 393-396.   DOI
14 Sengupta, S., Toh, S. A., Sellers, L. A., Skepper, J. N., Koolwijk, P., Leung, H. W., Yeung, H. W., Wong, R. N., Sasisekharan, R. and Fan, T. P. (2004) Modulating angiogenesis: the yin and the yang in ginseng. Circulation 110: 1219-1225.   DOI
15 Ahn, H. Y., Hong, S. Y., Kim, J. Y. and Kwon, O. (2013) Panax ginseng extract rich in ginsenoside protopanaxatriol offers combinatorial effects in nitric oxide production via multiple signaling pathways. Springerplus 2: 96.   DOI
16 Hong, B. N., Do, M. H., Her, Y. R., Lee, Y. R. and Kang, T. H. (2015) The effects of Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolius on thermoregulation in animal models. Evid. Based Complement Alternat. Med.: 748041.
17 Sievenpiper, J. L., Arnason, J. T., Leiter, L. A. and Vuksan, V. (2003) Variable effects of American ginseng: a batch of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) with a depressed ginsenoside profile does not affect postprandial glycemia. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 57: 243-248.   DOI
18 Wan, J. Z. and Luo, S. W. (1998) The differences of Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolium in chemical components, pharmacological actions and clinical application. Chin. Herb Med. 29: 57-58.
19 Blumenthal, M., Hall, T., Rister, R. and Steinhoff, B. (1996) The German commission E Monographs. Klein, S, and Rister, R. eds, American Botanical Council, Austin, TX, U.S.A.
20 Lee, H. W., Lim, H. J., Jun, J. H., Choi, J. and Lee, M. S. (2017) Ginseng for treating hypertension: A systematic review and meta-analysis of double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Curr. Vasc. Pharmacol. 15: 549-556.
21 World Health Organization (1999) WHO monographs on selected medicinal plants 1: 168-182.
22 PPRC(Pharmacopoeia of the People' Republic of China). Vol.1: 8-9 and 131-132, Chinese medical science and technology press, 2015.
23 National Toxicology Program (2011) Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of ginseng (CAS No. 50647-08-0) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (gavage studies). Natl. Toxicol. Program Tech. Rep. Ser. 567: 1-149.
24 Kim, S. H., Lee, S. R., Do, J. H., Lee, S. K. and Lee, K. S. (1995) Effects of Korean red ginseng and western ginseng on body temperature, pulse rate, clinical symptoms and the hematological changes in Human. Korean J. Ginseng Sci. 19: 1-16.
25 Lu, J. M., Yao, Q. and Chen, C. (2009) Ginseng compounds: an update on their molecular mechanisms and medical applications. Curr. Vasc. Pharmacol. 293-302.
26 Luo, J. Z. and Luo, L. (2009) Ginseng on hyperglycemia: effects and mechanisms. Evid. Based Complement Alternat. Med. 6: 423-427.   DOI
27 De Souza, L. R., Jenkins, A. L., Sievenpiper, J. L., Jovanovski, E., Rahelic, D. and Vuksan, V. (2011) Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) root fractions: differential effects on postprandial glycemia in healthy individuals. J. Ethnopharmacol. 137: 245-250.   DOI
28 Stavro, P. M., W. M. and Vuksan, V. (2004) Korean red ginseng lowers blood pressure in individuals with hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens. 17: S33.
29 Shibata, S. (2001) Chemistry and cancer preventing activities of ginseng saponins and some related triterpenoid compounds. J. Korean Med. Sci. 16: Suppl: S28-S37.   DOI
30 Chu, S. F. and Zhang, J. T. (2009) New achievements in ginseng research and its future prospects. Chin. J. Integr. Med. 15: 403-408.   DOI
31 Chen, Y., Zhao, Z., Chen, H., Yi, T., Qin, M. and Liang, Z. (2015) Chemical differentiation and quality evaluation of commercial Asian and American ginsengs based on a UHPLC-QTOF/MS/MS metabolomics approach. Phytochem. Anal. 26: 145-160.   DOI
32 Gillis, C. N.(1997) Panax ginseng Pharmacology: A nitric oxide link? Biochemical Pharmacology 54: 1-8.   DOI
33 Nam, K. Y. and Park, J. D.(2000). Usage and dosage of ginseng radix( Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) Based upon traditional and recent scientific clinical applications. Journal of Ginseng Research 26: 99-105.
34 Ernst, E. (2010) Panax ginseng: an overview of the clinical evidence. Journal of Ginseng Research 34: 259-263.   DOI
35 Choi, G. Y., Cho, J. H., Jang, J. B. and Lee K. S. (2003) A clinical study on the effect of ginseng to control superficial body temperature. Journal of Oriental Medical Thermology 2: 49-55.
36 Kaneko, H. (1995) 紅蔘の 末梢循環 改善作用とその證明.藥用人蔘. '95(熊谷朗編), 共立出版. 112-113.
37 Seo, J. C., Lee, K. L., Byun, J. S., Kim, M. S., Ha, I. D., Heo, Z. J. and Leem, K. H. (2003) Double-blind randomized controlled trials on superficial body temperature of Korean ginseng and American ginseng in Koreans and Chineses. Korean J. Herbology 18: 71-86.
38 Scaglione, F., Cattaneo, G., Alessandria, M. and Cogo, R. (1996) Efficacy and safety of the standarized ginseng extract G115 for potentiating vaccination against common cold and /or influenza syndrome. Drugs Exptl. Clin. Res. 22: 65-72.
39 Coon, J. T. and Ernst, E. (2002) Panax ginseng: a systematic review of adverse effects and drug interactions. Drug Saf. 25: 323-344.   DOI
40 Paik, D. J. and Lee, C. H. (2015) Review of cases of patient risk associated with ginseng abuse and misuse. J. Ginseng Res. 39: 89-93.   DOI
41 Xiang, Y. Z., Shang, H. C., Gao, X. M. and Zhang, B. L. (2008) A comparison of the ancient use of ginseng in traditional Chinese medicine with modern pharmacological experiments and clinical trials. Phytother. Res. 22: 851-858.   DOI
42 Associated Ginseng Growers of Brith Columbia (1988), Assessment of the market potential for ginseng cultivated in B.C. 12-17
43 American Botanical Council (ABC) (2003) The ABC clinical guide to herbs ( Ginseng, American): 203-209.
44 Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Agricultural and Fisheries(1990), American Ginseng Culture in the Arid Climates of B.C.: 1.
45 Qi, L. W., Wang, C. Z. and Yuan, C. S. (2011) Ginsenosides from American ginseng: chemical and pharmacological diversity. Phytochemistry 72: 689-699.   DOI
46 Chen, C. F., Chiou, W. F. and Zhang, J. T. (2008) Comparison of the pharmacological effects of Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolium. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 29: 1103-1108.   DOI
47 Choi, K. T., Choi, K. M., Sun, C., Zhou, Y., Kao, S. T., Binh, T. Q., Thuy T. H., Kwak, M. A., Kim, D. J., Byun, J. S., Hoang, V. A., Kim, Y. J., Min, J. W. and Yang, D. C (2014) The 11th International Symposium on Ginseng 429-444.
48 Seo, J. C., Han, S. W., Byun, J. S., An, H. D., Cho, G. H., Leem, K., Heo, Z. J., Yi, J. and Jin, M. (2005) The effects of ginseng and American Ginseng on general symptom in Koreans and Chineses- double-blind randomized controlled trials. J. Ginseng Res. 29: 27-36.   DOI
49 Lee, J. H., Cho, J. A., Ki, C. Y., Son, Y. K., Park, J. H., Park, M. K. and Han, Y. N. (2003) The effects of ginseng on hemodynamics and body temperature in healthy young man, Proceedings of the Ginseng society Conference. The Korean Society of Ginseng 36-37.
50 Seo, J. C., Lee, S. Y., Lee, K. M., Lee, S. C., Jeong, T. Y., An, H. D., Han S. W., Ha, I. D., Heo, Z. J., Lee, K. L. and Kim, M. S. (2004) double-blind randomized controlled trials on blood pressure and pulse rate of Korean Ginseng and American Ginseng in Koreans and Chineses. Korean J. Oriental Physiology & Pathology 18: 606-611.
51 Lee, C. R., Cho. K. H., Rhee, J. W., Na, B. J., Kim, T. H., Jung, W. S., Moon, S. K., Bae, H. S. and Kim, Y. S. (2005) The effect of Korean, Chinese and American Ginseng on blood pressure of hypertensive patients. J. Korean Oriental. Med. 26: 228-238.
52 Yamamoto, M, Uemura, Y. and Uemiya, M. (1983) Cinical effects of Korean red ginseng capsule on the treatment of diabetic patients. Kisho & Linshiou 17: 169-177.
53 Chang, Y. S., Lee, J. Y. and Kim, C. W. (1978) The effect of ginsenoside triol on the postoperative recovery in gynecological patients. Obstetrics & Gynecology Science 21: 253-257.
54 Kaneko, H. (1979) Clinical effects of Korean red ginseng powder: double blind clinical trial. Linshiou & Kenkyu 56: 188-195.
55 Kaneko, H., Matsuhara, H. and Uchida, M. (1983) Effects of Korean red ginseng powder on the treatment of cerebellar arteriosclerotic patients. Linshiou & Kenkyu 60: 170-176.
56 Yoshita, Y., Kamiyama, T. and Izumi, R. (1982) Cinical effects of Korean Red Ginseng capsule on the treatment of diabetic patients. Kisho & Linshiou 16: 302-308.
57 Imamura, Y. and Kuwashima, K. (1988) The effects of red ginseng on blood pressure and the quality of life in essential hypertensives. The 5th Int'l Ginseng Symp, Korea Ginseng & Tobacco Research Institute, Korea. 87-91.
58 Han, K. H., Choe, S. C., Kim, H. S., Sohn, D. W., Nam, K. Y., Oh, B. H., Lee, M. M., Park, Y. B., Choi, Y. S. and Seo, J. D. (1998) Effect of red ginseng on blood pressure in patients with essential hypertension and white coat hypertension. Am. J. Chin. Med. 26: 199-209.   DOI
59 Yamamoto, M. (1990) Effect of Korean red ginseng on blood pressure (multicentric study). The Ginseng Review 9: 15-20.
60 Siegel, R. K. (1979) Ginseng abuse syndrome. Problems with the panacea. JAMA 241: 1614-1615.   DOI
61 Hess, J. R., Parent, R. A., Stevens, K. R., Cox, G. E. and Becci, P. J. (1983) Effects of subchronic feeding of ginseng extract G115 in beagle dogs. Food Chem. Toxicol. 21: 95-97.   DOI
62 Kuang, H. and Cheng, W. (2009) Studies on the capability of properties and flavors of Chinese Medicine to be split and combined-A new assumption on the theory of properties and flavors of Chinese Medicine and the research method. World Sci. Technol./Moderniz Trad. Chin. Med. Mater. Med. 11: 768-771.
63 Huang, L., Yu, R. Y., Wang, T. M., Chen, W., Peng, S. H. and Liu, H. N. (2011) Status and prospect on studies of four properties for traditional Chinese Materia Medica. Chin. J. Exp. Tradit. Med. Formulae 17: 270-274.
64 Nam, K. Y., Yang, B. W., Shin, W. S. and Park, J. D. (2017) Toward a more complete understanding of the effects of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng) on blood pressure. Kor. J. Pharmacogn. 48: 97-107.
65 Jin, E. Y., Li., Y. J., Yang, L. X., Jin, M., Wei, Y. L. and Nam, K. Y. (2002) Effect of Korea red ginseng on the symptoms and hemodynamics in healthy elders. Proceedlings of the International Symposium on Ginseng. The Society of Ginseng. 27-34.
66 Carabin, I. G., Burdock, G. A. and Chatzidakis, C. (2000) Safety assessment of Panax ginseng. Int. J. Toxicol. 19: 293-301.   DOI
67 Park, S. J., Lee, J. R., Jo, M. J., Park, S. M., Ku, S. K. and Kim, S. C. (2013) Protective effects of Korean red ginseng extract on cadmium-induced hepatic toxicity in rats. J. Ginseng Res. 37: 37-44.   DOI
68 Liu, J. P., Lu, D., Nicholson, R. C., Li, P. Y. and Wang, F. (2011) Toxicity of a novel anti-tumor agent 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3: a 26-week intramuscular repeated administration study in Beagle dogs. Food Chem. Toxicol. 49: 1718-1727.   DOI
69 Liu, J. P., Lu, D., Nicholson, R. C., Zhao, W. J., Li, P. Y. and Wang, F. (2012) Toxicity of a novel anti-tumor agent 20(S)- ginsenoside Rg3: a 26-week intramuscular repeated administration study in rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 50: 3388-3396.   DOI
70 Lu, D., Liu, J., Zhao, W. and Li, P. (2012) Chronic toxicity of ginsenoside Re on Sprague-Dawley rats. J. Ethnopharmacol. 144: 656-663.   DOI
71 Xu, X. and Dou, D. (2016) The ginseng's fireness is associated with the lowering activity of liver Na(+)-K(+)- ATPase. J. Ethnopharmacol. 190: 241-250.   DOI
72 Wu, Y. F. (1981) A case report of ginseng abuse induced side effects. Chin. J. Clin. 4: 21.
73 Sudar, E., Velebit, J., Gluvic, Z., Zakula, Z., Lazic, E., Vuksanovic- Topic, L., Putnikovic, B., Neskovic, A. and Isenovic, E. R. (2008) Hypothetical mechanism of sodium pump regulation by estradiol under primary hypertension. J. Theor. Biol. 251: 584-592.   DOI
74 Su, X. and Sun, D. Z. (2015) Theoretical analysis of internal heat caused by taking ginseng. China J. Tradit. Chin. Med. Pharm. 2: 494-495.
75 Zhang, X. R., Zhao, Y. L., Wang, J. B., Zhou, C. P., Liu, T. S., Zhao, H. P., Ren, Y. S., Yan, D. and Xiao, X. H. (2009) Differences between cold and hot natures of processed Radix ginseng rubra and Panax quinquefolius L. based upon mice temperature tropism. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 89: 1994-1998.
76 Xu, C., Xu, D. and Qu, Z. (2005) Advances in research of the mechanism of hypothyroidism on the method of warmly invigorating kidney yang. Chin. J. Information on Trad. Chin. Med. 12: 107-108.
77 Jia, X. (2007) The study on the therapeutic mechanisms of the prescription warming the kidney and invigorating the spleen on rat's experimental hypothyroidism. Tianjin: Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine.
78 Soldati, F. (1984) Toxicological studies on ginseng. Proc. of the 4th Int'l Ginseng Symp. 119-126.
79 Program, N. T. (2011) Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of ginseng (CAS No. 50647-08-0) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (gavage studies). Natl. Toxicol. Program Tech. 1-149.
80 Korea Agro-Fisheries & Food Trade Corporation (2016) Customized survey on agricultural product market. Product: Ginseng), Country: Hong Kong. (http://www.kati.net/board/report)
81 Chan, T. W., Cheng, S. W., Kwok, I. M., Lau, F. W. and Xu H. X. (2000) Differentiation and authentication of Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, and ginseng products by using HPLC/MS. Anal. Chem. 72: 1281-1287.   DOI
82 Jia, L., Zhao, Y. and Liang, X. J. (2009) Current evaluation of the millennium phytomedicine- ginseng (II): Collected chemical entities, modern pharmacology, and clinical applications emanated from traditional Chinese medicine. Curr. Med. Chem. 16: 2924-2942.   DOI
83 Yan, J., Engle, V. F., He, Y., Jiao, Y. and Gu, W. (2009) Study designs of randomized controlled trials not based on Chinese medicine theory are improper. Chinese Medicine 4: 3.   DOI
84 Wang, L. C. and Lee, T. F. (2000) Effect of ginseng saponins on cold tolerance in young and elderly rats. Planta. Med. 66: 144-147.   DOI
85 Hsu, P. (1979) Why Chinese prefer American ginseng and how they use it. Proceeding of the first National Ginseng Conference. 104-106.
86 Mora Marco, J. (1998) The Complete Ginseng Handbook: A Practical Guide for Energy, Health, and Longevity. Contemporary Books. 1st edition.
87 Conkling, W. (1999) Secrets of Ginseng: Learn about Nature's Amazing Energy Herb!, St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1st edition.
88 Kim, K. J., Yoon, K. Y., Hong, H. D. and Lee, B. Y. (2015) Role of the red ginseng in defense against the environmental heat stress in Sprague Dawley rats. Molecules 20: 20240-20253.   DOI
89 Hong, H. D., Kim, Y. C., Choi, S. Y., Rho, J., Lee, Y. C. and Seo, J. Y. (2006) Effects of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng, C. A. Meyer) extracts on rat exposed to heat environment. Journal of Ginseng Research 30: 119-205.
90 Kim, D. H., Lee, S. R. and Kim, S. H. (1995) Effect of body & head of Korean red ginseng and western ginseng on body temperature, pulse rate, and the hematological changes in rat treated with heat & cold stimuli. J. of Oriental Medical Pathology 10: 197-215.
91 Yun, T. K. (2001) Brief introduction of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. J. Korean Med. Sci. 16: Suppl: S3-5.   DOI
92 Lee, D. P. (2006) A study on the cooling effect claim & development procedure of American ginseng. J. Ginseng Res. 30: 158-164.   DOI
93 Zhang, S. C. (1991) Chinese Ginseng. Shanghai Science & Education Press Co, Chinese. 373-384.
94 Park, E. Y., Kim, M. H., Kim, E. H., Lee, E. K., Park, I. S., Yang, D. C. and Jun, H. S. (2014) Efficacy comparison of Korean ginseng and American ginseng on body temperature and metabolic parameters. Am. J. Chin. Med. 42: 173-187.   DOI
95 Yuan, C. S., Wei, G., Dey, L., Karrison, T., Nahlik, L., Maleckar, S., Kasza, K., Ang-Lee, M. and Moss, J. (2004) Brief communication: American ginseng reduces warfarin's effect in healthy patients: a randomized, controlled Trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 141: 23-27.   DOI
96 Yuan, C. S., Wang, C. Z., Wicks, S. M. and Qi, L. W. (2010) Chemical and pharmacological studies of saponins with a focus on American ginseng. J. Ginseng Res. 34: 160-167.   DOI
97 Choi, J., Kim, T. H., Choi, T. Y. and Lee, M. S. (2013) Ginseng for health care: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials in Korean literature. PLoS One 8: e59978.   DOI
98 Lee, N. H. and Son, C. G. (2011) Systematic review of randomized controlled trials evaluating the efficacy and safety of ginseng. J. Acupunct. Meridian. Stud. 4: 85-97.   DOI
99 Kim, Y. S., Woo, J. Y., Han, C. K. and Chang, I. M. (2015) Safety analysis of Panax ginseng in randomized clinical trials: A Systematic Review. Medicines (Basel). 2: 106-126.
100 Kim J. Y. (2009) Sasang constitutional medicine as a holistic tailored medicine. Evid. Based Complement Alternat. Med. 6: 11-19.
101 Kaneko, H. Nakanishi, K. and Murakami, A. (1984) Vasodilator action of ginsenosides. Clinic and Study (Rinsho to Kenkyu) 61: 2657-2662.
102 Cheng, X. J., Liu, Y. L., Deng, Y. S., Lin, G. F. and Luo, X. T. (1987) Effects of ginseng root saponins on central transmitters and plasma corticosterone in cold stress mice and rats. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao 8: 486-489.
103 Kaneko, H. and Nakanishi, K. (2004) Proof of the mysterious efficacy of ginseng: basic and clinical trials: clinical effects of medical ginseng, korean red ginseng: specifically, its antistress action for prevention of disease. J. Pharmacol. Sci. 95: 158-162.   DOI
104 Kaneko, H. (1980) Studies on clinical effects of ginseng: 2nd report; effects of ginseng at acute massive dosage on circulatory function. Proceedings of the 3rd International Ginseng Symposium, Seoul, Korea. 193-196.
105 Yoshimatsu, H., Sakata, T., Machidori, H., Fujimoto, K., Yamatodani, A. and Wada, H. (1993) Ginsenoside Rg1 prevents histaminergic modulation of rat adaptive behavior from elevation of ambient temperature. Physiol. Behav. 53: 1-4.   DOI
106 Choi, D. J., Cho, K. H., Jung, W. S, Park, S. U., Han, C. H, and Lee, W. C. (2006) Clinical effects of Korean ginseng, Korean red ginseng, Chinese ginseng, and American ginseng on blood pressure in mild hypertensive Subjects. Journal of Oriental Medicine 27: 198-208.
107 Shim, E. B., Lee, S., Kim, J. Y. and Earm, Y. E. (2008) Physiome and Sasang constitutional medicine. J. Physiol. Sci. 58: 433-440.   DOI
108 Nam, K. Y. (1996) Contemporary Korean Ginseng(chemical constituents and pharmacological activity). Korean Ginseng & Tobacco Research Institute. 158-199.
109 Ang-Lee, M. K., Moss, J. and Yuan, C. S. (2001) Herbal medicines and perioperative care. JAMA 286: 208-216.   DOI
110 Lee, F. C, Nam, K. Y. and Kim, S. K. (1983) An Introduction to Korean Ginseng (The Elixirof Life). Korean Ginseng & Tobacco Research Institute Daejon, Korea 17-24.
111 Lee, E. J., Koh, B. H., Nam, K. Y. and Song, I. B. (1998) Clinical study on effects of Korean red ginseng from Sasang constitution in healthy adults. Proceeding of 2nd Oriental Medicine Hospital Symposium 213-244.
112 Lee, S. Y. and Hang, M. W. (2013) A case study of a soyangin patient with palpitation and epistaxis that occurred after taking Panax ginseng. J. Sasang Constitut. Med. 25: 406-413.   DOI
113 Choi, M. S, Jeong, J. C., Park, J. K., Ahn, H. Y. and Kim, D. I. (2009) A study on thermal effect and medication compliance of red ginseng extract. Journal of Korean Obstetrics and Gynecology 22: 223-235.
114 Jin, E., Shi, Z. X., Ke, Y. N., Huang, L. H., Yan, X. P., Wei, Y. L., Liu, P., Lee, K. S., Nam, K. Y. and Kumagai, A. (1997) Effects of Korean red ginseng in the treatment of hyperlipidemic patients. Proc. of '97 Korea-Japan Ginseng Symp, Korea Ginseng & Tobacco Research Institute, Korea. 82-90.
115 Cho, H. T., Kim, J. H., Lee, J. H. and Kim, Y. J. (2017) Effects of Panax ginseng extracts prepared at different steaming times on thermogenesis in rats. Journal of Ginseng Research 41: 347-352.   DOI
116 Wang, J. B., Jin, C., Xiao, X. H. and Zhao, Y. L.(2008). (2008) Review and thinking of study of nature of Chinese material medica. Chin. J. Tradit. Chin. Med. 7: 572-576.