Browse > Article

Review of Neospora caninum and neosporosis in animals  

Dubey, John-P. (United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center)
Publication Information
Parasites, Hosts and Diseases / v.41, no.1, 2003 , pp. 1-16 More about this Journal
Abstract
Neospora caninum is a coccidian parasite of animals. It is a major pathogen for cattle and dogs and it occasionally causes clinical infections in horses, goats, sheep, and deer. Domestic dogs are the only known definitive hosts for N. caninum. It is one of the most efficiently transmitted parasite of cattle and up to 90% of cattle in some herds are infected. Transplacental transmission is considered the major route of transmission of N. caninum in cattle. Neospora caninum is a major cause of abortion in cattle in many countries. To elicit protective immunity against abortion in cows that already harbor a latent infection is a major problem. This paper reviews information on biology, diagnosis, epidemiology and control of neosporosis in animals.
Keywords
Neospora caninum; neosporosis; animals; cattle; dogs;
Citations & Related Records

Times Cited By SCOPUS : 236
연도 인용수 순위
1 Almeria S, Ferrer D. Pabon M, Castell J, Maas S (2002) Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are a natural intermediate host of Neospora caninum. Vet Parasitol 107: 287-294.
2 Anderson ML, Reynolds JP, Rowe JD, et al. (1997) Evidence of vertical transmission of Neospora sp infection in dairy cattle. J Am Vet Med Assoc 210: 1169-1172.
3 Barber JS, Gasser RB, Ellis J, Reichel MP, McMillan D, Trees AJ (1997) Prevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum in different canid populations. J Parasitol 83: 1056-1058.
4 Buxton D, Maley SW, Wright S, Thomson KM, Rae AG, Innes EA (1998) The pathogenesis of experimental neosporosis in pregnant sheep. J Comp Pathol 118: 267-279.
5 Canada N, Meireles CS, Rocha A, Correia da Costa JM, Erickson MW, Dubey JP (2002b) Isolation of viable Toxoplasma gondii from naturally-infected aborted bovine fetuses. J Parasitol 88: 1247-1248.
6 Cheadle MA, Spencer JA, Blackburn BL (1999a) Seroprevalences of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in nondomestic felids from southern Africa. J Zoo Wildlife Med 30: 248-251.
7 Cuddon P, Lin DS, Bowman DD, et al. (1992) Neospora caninum infection in English springer spaniel littermates: Diagnostic evaluation and organism isolation. J Vet Intern Med 6: 325-332.
8 Daft BM, Barr BC, Collins N, Sverlow K (1996) Neospora encephalomyelitis and polyradiculoneuritis in an aged mare with Cushing's disease. Equine Vet J 28: 240-243.
9 de Souza SLP, Guimares JS, Ferreira F, Dubey JP, Gennari SM (2002) Prevalence of Neospora caninum antibodies in dogs from dairy cattle farms in Parana, Brazil. J Parasitol 88: 408-409.
10 Dubey JP, Carpenter JL, Speer CA, Topper MJ, Uggla A (1988a) Newly recognized fatal protozoan disease of dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 192: 1269-1285.
11 Dubey JP, Lindsay DS (1990) Neospora caninum induced abortion in sheep. J Vet Diagn Invest 2: 230-233.
12 Dubey JP, Kerber CE, Granstrom DE (1999c) Serologic prevalence of Sarcocystis neurona, Toxoplasma gondii, and Neospora caninum in horses in Brazil. J Am Vet Med Assoc 215: 970-972.
13 Dubey JP, Venturini MC, Venturini L, McKinney J, Pecoraro M (1999d) Prevalence of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona, Toxoplasma gondii, and Neospora caninum in horses from Argentina. Vet Parasitol 86: 59-62.
14 Fioretti DP, Rosignoli L, Ricci G, Moretti A, Pasquali P, Polidori GA (2000) Neospora caninum infection in a clinically healthy calf: parasitological study and serological follow-up. J Vet Med B 47: 47-53.
15 Gennari SM, Yai LEO, D'Auria SNR, et al. (2002) Occurrence of Neospora caninum antibodies in sera from dogs of the city of S?o Paulo, Brazil. Vet Parasitol 106: 177-179.
16 Gondim LFP, Pinheiro AM, Santos POM, et al. (2001) Isolation of Neospora caninum from the brain of a naturally infected dog and production of encysted bradyzoites in gerbils. Vet Parasitol 101: 1-7.
17 Gupta GD, Lakritz J, Kim JH, Kim DY, Kim JK, Marsh AE (2002) Seroprevalence of Neospora, Toxoplasma gondii, and Sarcocystis neurona antibodies in horses from Jeju island, South Korea. Vet Parasitol 106: 193-201.
18 Hay WH, Shell LG, Lindsay DS, Dubey JP (1990) Diagnosis and treatment of Neospora caninum infection in a dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc 197: 87-89.
19 Huong LTT, Ljungstrom BL, Uggla A, Bjorkman C (1998) Prevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in cattle and water buffaloes in southern Vietnam. Vet Parasitol 75: 53-57.
20 Jolley WR, McAllister MM, McGuire AM, Wills RA (1999) Repetitive abortion in Neospora-infected ewes. Vet Parasitol 82: 251-257.
21 Klein BU, Muller E (2001) Seropravalenz von antikorpern gegen Neospora caninum bei Hunden mit und ohne klinischem Neosporoseverdacht in Deutschland. Der praktische Tierarzt 82: 437-440.
22 Kobayashi Y, Yamada M, Omata Y, et al. (2001) Naturallyoccurring Neospora caninum infection in an adult sheep and her twin fetuses. J Parasitol 87: 434-436.
23 Lindsay DS, Kelly EJ, McKown R, et al. (1996a) Prevalence of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in coyotes (Canis latrans) and experimental infections of coyotes with Neospora caninum. J Parasitol 82: 657-659.
24 Lindsay DS, Steinberg H, Dubielzig RR, et al. (1996b) Central nervous system neosporosis in a foal. J Vet Diagn Invest 8:507-510.
25 Lindsay DS, Ritter DM, Brake D (2001a) Oocyst excretion in dogs fed mouse brains containing tissue cysts of a cloned line of Neospora caninum. J Parasitol 87: 909-911.
26 Magnino S, Vigo PG, Fabbi M (1999) Isolation of a bovine Neospora from a newborn calf in Italy. Vet Rec 144: 456-456.
27 Marsh AE, Barr BC, Madigan J, Lakritz J, Nordhausen R, Conrad PA (1996) Neosporosis as a cause of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 209: 1907-1913.
28 Marsh AE, Barr BC, Packham AE, Conrad PA (1998) Description of a new Neospora species (Protozoa: Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae). J Parasitol 84: 983-991.
29 Marsh AE, Johnson PJ, Ramos-Vara J, Johnson GC (2001) Characterization of a Sarcocystis neurona isolate from a Missouri horse with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Parasitol 95: 143-154.
30 Ordeix L, Lloret A, Fondevila D, Dubey JP, Ferrer L, Fondati A (2002) Cutaneous neosporosis during treatment of pemphigus foliaceus in a dog. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 38: 415-419.
31 Peters M, Wohlsein P, Knieriem A, Schares G (2001b) Neospora caninum infection associated with stillbirths in captive antelopes (Tragelaphus imberbis). Vet Parasitol 97: 153-157.
32 Petersen E, Lebech M, Jensen L, et al. (1999) Neospora caninum infection and repeated abortions in humans. Emerging Infectious Diseases 5: 278-280.
33 Slapeta JR, Modry D, Kyselova I, Horejs R, Lukes J, Koudela B (2002) Dog shedding oocysts of Neospora caninum: PCR diagnosis and molecular phylogenic approach. Vet Parasitol 109: 157-167.
34 Pitel PH, Pronost S, Romand S, Thulliez P, Fortier G, Ballet JJ (2001) Prevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum in horses in France. Equine Vet J 33: 205-207.
35 Sager H, Fischer I, Furrer K, et al. (2001) A Swiss case-control study to assess Neospora caninum-associated bovine abortions by PCR, histopathology and serology. Vet Parasitol 102: 1-15.
36 Sawada M, Kondo H, Tomioka Y, et al. (2000) Isolation of Neospora caninum from the brain of a naturally infected adult dairy cow. Vet Parasitol 90: 247-252.
37 Trees AJ, Williams DJL (2003) Vaccination against bovine neosporosis ? the challenge is the challenge. J Parasitol 89: Supplement. in press:
38 Williams JH, Espie I, van Wilpe E, Matthee A (2002) Neosporosis in a white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) calf. Tydskr S Afr Vet Ver 73: 38-43.
39 Wolfe A, Hogan S, Maguire D, et al. (2001) Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Ireland as hosts for parasites of potential zoonotic and veterinary significance. Vet Rec 149: 759-763.
40 Wouda W (1998) Neospora abortion in cattle, aspects of diagnosis and epidemiology. PhD Thesis, Univ. Utrecht, The Netherlands. 1-176.
41 Wouda W, Dijkstra T, Kramer AMH, van Maanen C, Brinkhof JMA (1999b) Seroepidemiological evidence for a relationship between Neospora caninum infections in dogs and cattle. Int J Parasitol 29: 1677-1682.
42 Corbellini LG, Driemeier D, Cruz CFE, Gondim LFP, Wald V (2002) Neosporosis as a cause of abortion in dairy cattle in Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil. Vet Parasitol 103: 195-202.
43 Hill DE, Liddell S, Jenkins MC, Dubey JP (2001) Specific detection of Neospora caninum oocyst in fecal samples from experimentally-infected dogs using the polymerase chain reaction. J Parasitol 87: 395-398.
44 McAllister MM, Dubey JP, Lindsay DS, Jolley WR, Wills RA, McGuire AM (1998) Dogs are definitive hosts of Neospora caninum. Int J Parasitol 28: 1473-1478.
45 Anderson ML, Blanchard PC, Barr BC, Dubey JP, Hoffmann RL, Conrad PA (1991) Neospora-like protozoan infection as a major cause of abortion in California dairy cattle. J Am Vet Med Assoc 198: 241-244.
46 Moore DP, Campero CM, Odeon AC, et al. (2002) Seroepidemiology of beef and dairy herds and fetal study of Neospora caninum in Argentina. Vet Parasitol 107: 303-316.
47 Ooi HK, Huang CC, Yang CH, Lee SH (2000) Serological survey and first finding of Neospora caninum in Taiwan, and the detection of its antibodies in various body fluids of cattle. Vet Parasitol 90: 47-55.
48 Pare J, Fecteau G, Fortin M, Marsolais G (1998) Seroepidemiologic study of Neospora caninum in dairy herds. J Am Vet Med Assoc 213: 1595-1598.
49 Dubey JP, Barr BC, Barta JR, et al. (2002) Redescription of Neospora caninum and its differentiation from related coccidia. Int J Parasitol 32: 929-946.
50 Barr BC, Conrad PA, Sverlow KW, Tarantal AF, Hendrickx AG (1994) Experimental fetal and transplacental Neospora infection in the nonhuman primate. Laboratory Investigation 71: 236-242.
51 Innes EA, Wright SE, Maley S, et al. (2001b) Protection against vertical transmission in bovine neosporosis. Int J Parasitol 31: 1523-1534.
52 Peters M, Lutkefels E, Heckeroth AR, Schares G (2001a) Immunohistochemical and ultrastructural evidence for Neospora caninum tissue cysts in skeletal muscles of naturally infected dogs and cattle. Int J Parasitol 31: 1144-1148.
53 Lindsay DS, Little SE, Davidson WR (2002) Prevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum in white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, from the Southeastern United States. J Parasitol 88: 415-417.
54 Thurmond MC, Hietala SK (1996) Culling associated with Neospora caninum infection in dairy cows. Am J Vet Res 57:1559-1562.
55 Bielanski A, Robinson J, Phipps-Todd B (2002) Effect of Neospora caninum on in vitro development of preimplantation stage bovine embryos and adherence to the zona pellucida. Vet Rec 150: 316-318.
56 Morales E, Trigo FJ, Ibarra F, Puente E, Santacruz M (2001) Neosporosis in Mexican dairy herds: Lesions and immunohistochemical detection of Neospora caninum in fetuses. J Comp Pathol 125: 58-63.
57 Thurmond MC, Anderson ML, Blanchard PC (1995) Secular and seasonal trends of Neospora abortion in California dairy cows. J Parasitol 81: 364-367.
58 Barr BC, Conrad PA, Breitmeyer R, et al. (1993) Congenital Neospora infection in calves born from cows that had previously aborted Neospora-infected fetuses: four cases (1990-1992). J Am Vet Med Assoc 202: 113-117.
59 Davison HC, Guy CS, McGarry JW, Guy F, Williams DJL, Trees AJ (2001) Experimental studies on the transmission of Neospora caninum between cattle. Res Vet Sci 70: 163-168.
60 Dijkstra T, Eysker M, Schares G, Conraths FJ, Wouda W, Barkema HW (2001) Dogs shed Neospora caninum oocysts after ingestion of naturally infected bovine placenta but not after ingestion of colostrum spiked with Neospora caninum tachyzoites. Int J Parasitol 31: 747-752.
61 Patitucci AN, Phil M, Perez MJ, Rozas MA, Israel KF (2001) Neosporosis canina: presencia de anticuerpos sericos en poblaciones caninas rurales y urbanas de Chile. Arch Med Vet 33: 227-232.
62 Peters M, Wagner F, Schares G (2000) Canine neosporosis: clinical and pathological findings and first isolation of Neospora caninum in Germany. Parasitol Res 86: 1-7.
63 Sondgen P, Peters M, Barwald A, et al. (2001) Bovine neosporosis: immunoblot improves foetal serology. Vet Parasitol 102: 279-290.
64 Thurmond MC, Hietala SK (1999) Neospora caninum infection and abortion in cattle. 4: 425-431.
65 Hernandez J, Risco C, Donovan A (2001) Association between exposure to Neospora caninum and milk production in dairy cows. J Am Vet Med Assoc 219: 632-635.
66 Landmann JK, Jillella D, O'Donoghue PJ, McGowan MR (2002) Confirmation of the prevention of vertical transmission of Neospora caninum in cattle by the use of embryo transfer. Aust Vet J 80: 502-503.
67 Stenlund S, Bjorkman C, Holmdahl OJM, Kindahl H, Uggla A (1997) Characterisation of a Swedish bovine isolate of Neospora caninum. Parasitol Res 83: 214-219.
68 Thurmond MC, Hietala SK (1997) Effect of Neospora caninum infection on milk production in first-lactation dairy cows. J Am Vet Med Assoc 210: 672-674.
69 Anderson ML, Palmer CW, Thurmond MC, et al. (1995) Evaluation of abortions in cattle attributable to neosporosis in selected dairy herds in California. J Am Vet Med Assoc 207: 1206-1210.
70 Dubey JP, Lindsay DS (2000) Gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) are highly susceptible to oral infection with Neospora caninum oocyst. Parasitol. Res. 86: 165-168.
71 Jakubek EB, Brojer C, Regnersen C, Uggla A, Schares G, Bjorkman C (2001) Seroprevalences of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in Swedish red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Vet Parasitol 102: 167-172.
72 McAllister MM, McGuire AM, Jolley WR, Lindsay DS, Trees AJ, Stobart RH (1996) Experimental neosporosis in pregnant ewes and their offspring. Vet Parasitol 33: 647-655.
73 Walsh CP, Duncan RB, Zajac AM, Blagburn BL, Lindsay DS (2000) Neospora hughesi: experimental infections in mice, gerbils, and dogs. Vet Parasitol 92: 119-128.
74 Dubey JP, Hollis K, Romand S, et al. (1999a) High prevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Int J Parasitol 29: 1709-1711.
75 Barr BC, Anderson ML, Dubey JP, Conrad PA (1991) Neosporalike protozoal infections associated with bovine abortions. Vet Pathol 28: 110-116.
76 Basso W, Venturini L, Venturini MC, et al. (2001a) First isolation of Neospora caninum from the feces of a naturally infected dog. J Parasitol 87: 612-618.
77 Dubey JP, Acland HM, Hamir AN (1992) Neospora caninum (Apicomplexa) in a stillborn goat. J Parasitol 78: 532-534.
78 Barling KS, McNeill JW, Thompson JA, et al. (2000) Association of serologic status for Neospora caninum with postweaning weight gain and carcass measurements in beef calves. J Am Vet Med Assoc 217: 1356-1360.
79 Lindsay DS, Dubey JP (2000) Canine neosporosis. J Vet Parasitol 14: 1-11.
80 Barber JS, Trees AJ (1998) Naturally occurring vertical transmission of Neospora caninum in dogs. Int J Parasitol 28: 57-64.
81 Canada N, Meireles CS, Rocha A, et al. (2002a) First Portuguese isolate of Neospora caninum from an aborted fetus from a dairy herd with endemic neosporosis. Vet Parasitol 110: 11-15.
82 Buxton D, Maley SW, Thomson KM, Trees AJ, Innes EA (1997b) Experimental infection of non-pregnant and pregnant sheep with Neospora caninum. J Comp Pathol 117:1-16.
83 Davison HC, Guy F, Trees AJ, et al. (1999) In vitro isolation of Neospora caninum from a stillborn calf in the UK. Res Vet Sci 67: 103-105.
84 Perle KMD, Del Piero F, Carr RF, Harris C, Stromberg PC (2001) Cutaneous neosporosis in two adult dogs on chronic immunosuppressive therapy. J Vet Diagn Invest 13: 252-255.
85 Reichel MP, Thorton RN, Morgan PL, Mills RJM, Schares G (1998) Neosporosis in a pup. N Z Vet J 46: 106-110.
86 Conrad PA, Barr BC, Sverlow KW, et al. (1993) In vitro isolation and characterization of a Neospora sp. from aborted bovine foetuses. Parasitology 106: 239-249.
87 Dubey JP (1999) Recent advances in Neospora and neosporosis. Vet Parasitol 84: 349-367.
88 Nam HW, Kang SW, Choi WY (1998) Antibody reaction of human anti-Toxoplasma gondii positive and negative sera with Neospora caninum antigens. Korean J Parasitol 36: 269-275.
89 Basso W, Venturini L, Venturini MC, et al. (2001b) Prevalence of Neospora caninum infection in dogs from beef-cattle farms, dairy farms, and from urban areas of Argentina. J Parasitol 87: 906-907.
90 Boydell P, Brogan N (2000) Horner's syndrome associated with Neospora infection. J Small Anim Pract 41: 571-572.
91 Guarino A, Fusco G, Savini G, Di Francesco G, Cringoli G (2000) Neosporosis in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in southern Italy. Vet Parasitol 91: 15-21.
92 Hamir AN, Tornquist SJ, Gerros TC, Topper MJ, Dubey JP (1998) Neospora caninum ? associated equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Parasitol 79: 269-274.
93 Tranas J, Heinzen RA, Weiss LM, McAllister MM (1999) Serological evidence of human infection with the protozoan Neospora caninum. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 6: 765-767.
94 Hartley WJ, Bridge PS (1975) A case of suspected congenital Toxoplasma encephalomyelitis in a lamb associated with a spinal cord anomaly. Br Vet J 131: 380-384.
95 McAllister MM, Bjorkman C, Anderson-Sprecher R, Rogers DG (2000) Evidence of point-source exposure to Neospora caninum and protective immunity in a herd of beef cows. J Am Vet Med Assoc 217: 881-887.
96 Simpson VR, Monies RJ, Riley P, Cromey DS (1997) Foxes and neosporosis. Vet Rec 141: 503-503.
97 Innes EA, Lunden A, Esteban I, et al. (2001a) A previous infection with Toxoplasma gondii does not protect against a challenge with Neospora caninum in pregnant sheep. Parasite Immunol 23: 121-132.
98 Cheadle MA, Lindsay DS, Rowe S, et al. (1999b) Prevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum in horses from Alabama and characterisation of an isolate recovered from a naturally infected horse. Int J Parasitol 29: 1537-1543.
99 Vardeleon D, Marsh AE, Thorne JG, Loch W, Young R, Johnson PJ (2001) Prevalence of Neospora hughesi and Sarcocystis neurona antibodies in horses from various geographical locations. Vet Parasitol 95: 273-282.
100 Yamane I, Kokuho T, Shimura K, et al. (1997) In vitro isolation and characterisation of a bovine Neospora species in Japan. Res Vet Sci 63: 77-80.
101 Dubey JP, Koestner A, Piper RC (1990a) Repeated transplacental transmission of Neospora caninum in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 197: 857-860.
102 Schares G, Heydorn AO, Cuppers A, Conraths FJ, Mehlhorn H (2001) Hammondia heydorni-like oocysts shed by a naturally infected dog and Neospora caninum NC-1 cannot be distinguished. Parasitol Res 87: 808-816.
103 Wouda W, Bartels CJM, Moen AR (1999a) Characteristics of Neospora caninum-associated abortion storms in dairy herds in the Netherlands (1995-1997). Theriogenology 52:233-245.
104 Barr BC, Anderson ML, Woods LW, Dubey JP, Conrad PA (1992) Neospora-like protozoal infections associated with abortion in goats. J Vet Diagn Invest 4: 365-367.
105 Boulton JG, Gill PA, Cook RW, Fraser GC, Harper PAW, Dubey JP (1995) Bovine Neospora abortion in north-eastern New South Wales. Aust Vet J 72: 119-120.
106 Buxton D, Maley SW, Pastoret PP, Brochier B, Innes EA (1997a) Examination of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Belgium for antibody to Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii. Vet Rec 141: 308-309.
107 Dubey JP, Romand S, Hilali M, Kwok OCH, Thulliez P (1998b) Seroprevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) from Egypt. Int J Parasitol 28: 527-529.
108 Dubey JP, Liddell S, Mattson D, Speer CA, Howe DK, Jenkins MC (2001) Characterization of the Oregon isolate of Neospora hughesi from a horse. J Parasitol 87: 345-353.
109 Dubey JP (2003) Neosporosis in cattle. J Parasitol 89: Supplement, in press.
110 Koyama T, Kobayashi Y, Omata Y, et al. (2001) Isolation of Neospora caninum from the brain of a pregnant sheep. J Parasitol 87: 1486-1488.
111 Lindsay DS, Upton SJ, Dubey JP (1999b) A structural study of the Neospora caninum oocyst. Int J Parasitol 29: 1521-1523.
112 Trees AJ, Williams DJL (2000) Neosporosis in the United Kingdom. Int J Parasitol 30: 891-893.
113 Corbellini LG, Colodel EM, Driemeier D (2001) Granulomatous encephalitis in a neurologically impaired goat kid associated with degeneration of Neospora caninum tissue cysts. J Vet Diagn Invest 13: 416-419.
114 Kim JH, Sohn HJ, Hwang WS, et al. (2000) In vitro isolation and characterization of bovine Neospora caninum in Korea. Vet Parasitol 90: 147-154.
115 Sawada M, Park CH, Kondo H, et al. (1998) Serological survey of antibody to Neospora caninum in Japanese dogs. J Vet Med Sci 60: 853-854.
116 Helmick B, Otter A, McGarry J, Buxton D (2002) Serological investigation of aborted sheep and pigs for infection by Neospora caninum. Res Vet Sci 73: 187.
117 Tarantino C, Rossi G, Kramer LH, Perrucci S, Cringoli G, Macchioni G (2001) Leishmania infantum and Neospora caninum simultaneous skin infection in a young dog in Italy. Vet Parasitol 102: 77-83.
118 Wouda W, Moen AR, Visser IJR, van Knapen F (1997) Bovine fetal neosporosis: a comparison of epizootic and sporadic abortion cases and different age classes with regard to lesion severity and immunohistochemical identification of organisms in brain, heart, and liver. J Vet Diagn Invest 9:180-185.
119 Anderson, ML, Andrianarivo AG, Conrad PA (2000) Neosporosis in cattle. Anim Reprod Sci 60-61: 417-431.
120 Barber JS, Holmdahl OJM, Owen MR, Guy F, Uggla A, Trees AJ (1995) Characterization of the first European isolate of Neospora caninum (Dubey, Carpenter, Speer, Topper and Uggla). Parasitology 111: 563-568.
121 Lindsay DS, Spencer J, Rupprecht CE, Blagburn BL (2001b) Prevalence of agglutinating antibodies to Neospora caninum in raccoons, Procyon lotor. J Parasitol 87: 1197-1198.
122 Innes EA, Andrianarivo AG, Bjorkman C, Williams DJL, Conrad PA. (2002). Immune responses to Neospora caninum and prospects for vaccination. Trends Parasitol 18: 497-504.
123 Lindsay DS, Rippey NS, Powe TA, Sartin EA, Dubey JP, Blagburn BL (1995) Abortions, fetal death, and stillbirths in pregnant pygmy goats inoculated with tachyzoites of Neospora caninum. Am J Vet Res 56: 1176-1180.
124 Lindsay DS, Dubey JP, Duncan RB (1999a) Confirmation that the dog is a definitive host for Neospora caninum. Vet Parasitol 82: 327-333.
125 Mineo TWP, Silva DAO, Costa GHN, et al. (2001) Detection of IgG antibodies to Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in dogs examined in veterinary hospital from Brazil. Vet Parasitol 98: 239-245.
126 O'Handley R, Liddell S, Parker C, Jenkins M, Dubey JP (2002) Experimental infection of sheep with Neospora caninum oocysts. J Parasitol 88: 1120-1123.
127 Woods LW, Anderson ML, Swift PK, Sverlow KW (1994) Systemic neosporosis in a California black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus). J Vet Diagn Invest 6: 508-510.
128 Dubey JP, Rigoulet J, Lagourette P, George C, Longeart L, LeNet JL (1996b) Fatal transplacental neosporosis in a deer (Cervus eldi siamensis). J Parasitol 82: 338-339.
129 Coskun SZ, Aydyn L, Bauer C (2000) Seroprevalence of Neospora caninum infection in domestic dogs in Turkey. Vet Rec 146: 649-649.
130 Dubey JP, Porterfield ML (1990) Neospora caninum (Apicomplexa) in an aborted equine fetus. J Parasitol 76: 732-734.
131 Dubey JP, Dorough KR, Jenkins MC, et al. (1998a) Canine neosporosis: clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment and isolation of Neospora caninum in mice and cell culture. Int J Parasitol 28: 1293-1304.
132 Miller CMD, Quinn HE, Windsor PA, Ellis JT (2002) Characterization of the first Australian isolate of Neospora caninum from cattle. Aust Vet J 80: 620-625.
133 Pipano E, Shkap V, Fish L, Savitsky I,. Perl S, Orgad U (2002) Susceptibility of Psammomys obesus and Meriones tristrami to tachyzoites of Neospora caninum. J. Parasitol 88: 314-319.
134 Pronost S, Pitel PH, Romand S, Thulliez P, Collobert C, Fortier G (1999) Neospora caninum: premiere mise en evidence in France sur un avorton equin, analyse et perspectives. Prat Vet Equine 31: 31-34.
135 Graham DA, Calvert V, Whyte M, Marks J (1999) Absence of serological evidence for human Neospora caninum infection. Vet Rec 144: 672-673.
136 Dubey JP, Hartley WJ, Lindsay DS, Topper MJ (1990b) Fatal congenital Neospora caninum infection in a lamb. J Parasitol 76: 127-130.
137 Dubey JP, Lindsay DS (1996) A review of Neospora caninum and neosporosis. Vet Parasitol 67: 1-59.
138 Fujii TU, Kasai N, Nishi SM, Dubey JP, Gennari SM (2001) Seroprevalence of Neospora caninum in female water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) from the southeastern region of Brazil. Vet Parasitol 99: 331-334.
139 Jenkins M, Baszler T, Bjorkman C, Schares G, Williams D (2002) Diagnosis and seroepidemiology of Neospora caninum-associated bovine abortion. Int J Parasitol 32: 631-636.
140 Bjerkas I, Mohn SF, Presthus J (1984) Unidentified cystforming sporozoon causing encephalomyelitis and myositis in dogs. Z Parasitenk 70: 271-274.
141 Cringoli G, Rinaldi E, Capuano F, Baldi L, Veneziano V, Capelli G (2002) Serological survey of Neospora caninum and Leishmania infantum co-infection in dogs. Vet Parasitol 106: 307-313.
142 Dubey JP, Hattel AL, Lindsay DS, Topper MJ (1988b) Neonatal Neospora caninum infection in dogs: Isolation of the causative agent and experimental transmission. J Am Vet MEd Assoc 193: 1259-1263.
143 Lindsay DS, Weston JL, Little SE (2001c) Prevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) from South Carolina. Vet Parasitol 97: 159-164.
144 Dijkstra T (2002) Horizontal and vertical transmission of Neospora caninum. PhD Thesis, Univ. Utrecht, the Netherlands. 1-140.
145 Baillargeon P, Fecteau G, Pare J, Lamothe P, Sauve R (2001) Evaluation of the embryo transfer procedure proposed by the International Embryo Transfer Society as a method of controlling vertical transmission of Neospora caninum in cattle. J Am Vet Med Assoc 218: 1803-1806.
146 Gondim LFP, Gao L, McAllister MM (2002) Improved production of Neospora caninum oocysts, cyclical oral transmission between dogs and cattle, and in vitro isolation from oocysts. J Parasitol 88: 1159-1163.
147 Otter A, Wilson BW, Scholes SFE, Jeffrey M, Helmick B, Trees AJ (1997) Results of a survey to determine whether Neospora is a significant cause of ovine abortion in England and Wales. Vet Rec 140: 175-177.
148 Buxton D, McAllister M, Dubey JP (2002) The comparative pathogenesis of neosporosis. Trends Parasitol 18: 546-552.
149 Cantile C, Arispici M (2002) Necrotizing cerebellitis due to Neospora caninum infection in an old dog. J Vet Med 49: 47-50.
150 Gray ML, Harmon BG, Sales L, Dubey JP (1996) Visceral neosporosis in a 10-year-old horse. J Vet Diagn Invest 8: 130-133.
151 McDole MG, Gay JM (2002) Seroprevalence of antibodies against Neospora caninum in diagnostic equine serum samples and their possible association with fetal loss. Vet Parasitol 105: 257-260.
152 Dubey JP, Morales JA, Villalobos P, Lindsay DS, Blagburn BL, Topper MJ (1996a) Neosporosis-associated abortion in a dairy goat. J Am Vet Med Assoc 208: 263-265.
153 Dubey JP, Romand S, Thulliez P, Kwok OCH, Shen SK, Gamble HR (1999b) Prevalance of antibodies to Neospora caninum in horses in North America. J Parasitol 85: 968-969.