Browse > Article
http://dx.doi.org/10.14478/ace.2021.1073

Research Trends in Chemical Analysis Based Explosive Detection Techniques  

Moon, Sanghyeon (Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Inha University)
Lee, Wonjoo (Aerospace and Defence Reliability, Korea Testing Laboratory)
Lee, Kiyoung (Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Inha University)
Publication Information
Applied Chemistry for Engineering / v.33, no.1, 2022 , pp. 1-10 More about this Journal
Abstract
This paper reviews the principles, advantages, and disadvantages of main explosives detection technologies, as well as research areas needed in the future. Explosives detection technology can be classified into spectroscopic methods, sensor techniques, and olfactory type sensors. There have been advances in explosives detection technology, however studies on discriminatory, portability, and sensitivity for explosives detection still remained competitive.
Keywords
Explosive detection; Explosive-related compound; Counter-terrorism;
Citations & Related Records
연도 인용수 순위
  • Reference
1 G. P. Anderson, S. C. Moreira, P. T. Charles, I. L. Medintz, E. R. Goldman, M. Zeinali, and C. R. Taitt, TNT detection using multiplexed liquid array displacement immunoassays, Anal. Chem., 78, 2279-2285 (2006).   DOI
2 V. Bhalla, X. Zhao, and V. Zazubovich, Detection of explosive compounds using Photosystem II-based biosensor, J. Electroanal. Chem., 657, 84-90 (2011).   DOI
3 G. H. Shi, Z. B. Shang, Y. Wang, W. J. Jin, and T. C. Zhang, Fluorescence quenching of CdSe quantum dots by nitroaromatic explosives and their relative compounds, Spectrochim. Acta A, 70, 247-252 (2008).   DOI
4 J. C. Sanchez, S. J. Toal, Z. Wang, R. E. Dugan, and W. C. Trogler, Selective detection of trace nitroaromatic, nitramine, and nitrate ester explosive residues using a three-step fluorimetric sensing process: a tandem turn-off, turn-on sensor, J. Forensic Sci., 52, 1308-1313 (2007).
5 T. Caron, M. Guillemot, P. Montmeat, F. Veignal, F. Perraut, P. Prene, and F. Serein-Spirau, Ultra trace detection of explosives in air: development of a portable fluorescent detector, Talanta, 81, 543-548 (2010).   DOI
6 R. G. Smith, N. D'Souza, and S. Nicklin, A review of biosensors and biologically-inspired systems for explosives detection, Analyst, 133, 571-584 (2008).   DOI
7 D. Lu, A. Cagan, R. A. Munoz, T. Tangkuaram, and J. Wang, Highly sensitive electrochemical detection of trace liquid peroxide explosives at a Prussian-blue 'artificial-peroxidase' modified electrode, Analyst, 131, 1279-1281 (2006).   DOI
8 J. Wang and M. Pumera, Microchip flow-injection analysis of trace 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) using mercury-amalgam electrochemical detector, Talanta, 69, 984-987 (2006).   DOI
9 J. C. Chen, J. L. Shih, C. H. Liu, M. Y. Kuo, and J. M. Zen, Disposable electrochemical sensor for determination of nitro-aromatic compounds by a single-run approach, Anal. Chem., 78, 3752-3757 (2006).   DOI
10 L. Yu, Y. Huang, X. Jin, A. J. Mason, and X. Zeng, Ionic liquid thin layer EQCM explosives sensor, Sens. Actuators B Chem., 140, 363-370 (2009).   DOI
11 M. S. Meaney and V. L. McGuffin, Luminescence-based methods for sensing and detection of explosives, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 391, 2557-2576 (2008).   DOI
12 M. P. Monterola, B. W. Smith, N. Omenetto, and J. D. Winefordner, Photofragmentation of nitro-based explosives with chemiluminescence detection, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 391, 2617-2626 (2008).   DOI
13 S. J. Toal, J. C. Sanchez, R. E. Dugan, and W. C. Trogler, Visual detection of trace nitroaromatic explosive residue using photo-luminescent metallole-containing polymers, J. Forensic Sci., 52, 79-83 (2007).   DOI
14 M. Martin, M. Crain, K. Walsh, R. A. McGill, E. Houser, J. Stepnowski, S. Stepnowski, H.-D. Wu, and S. Ross, Microfabricated vapor preconcentrator for portable ion mobility spectroscopy, Sens. Actuators B Chem., 126, 447-454 (2007).   DOI
15 P. Lucena, A. Dona, L. M. Tobaria, and J. J. Laserna, New challenges and insights in the detection and spectral identification of organic explosives by laser induced breakdown spectroscopy, Spectrochim. Acta B, 66, 12-20 (2011).   DOI
16 C.-L. Yuan, C.-P. Chang, Y.-S. Hong, and Y. J. M. S.-P. Sung, Fabrication of MWNTs-PANI composite-a chemiresistive sensor material for the detection of explosive gases, Mater. Sci.-Pol., 27, 509-520 (2009).
17 M. Tabrizchi and V. Ilbeigi, Detection of explosives by positive corona discharge ion mobility spectrometry, J. Hazard. Mater., 176, 692-696 (2010).   DOI
18 E. L. Izake, Forensic and homeland security applications of modern portable Raman spectroscopy, Forensic Sci. Int., 202, 1-8 (2010).   DOI
19 A. Pettersson, I. Johansson, S. Wallin, M. Nordberg, and H. Ostmark, Near Real-Time Standoff Detection of Explosives in a Realistic Outdoor Environment at 55 m Distance, Propellants Explos. Pyrotech., 34, 297-306 (2009).   DOI
20 A. Ponnu and E. V. Anslyn, A fluorescence-based cyclodextrin sensor to detect nitroaromatic explosives, Supramol. Chem., 22, 65-71 (2010).   DOI
21 E. M. A. Ali, H. G. M. Edwards, M. D. Hargreaves, and I. J. Scowen, Detection of explosives on human nail using confocal Raman microscopy, J. Raman Spectrosc., 40, 144-149 (2009).   DOI
22 B. A. Paldus and A. A. Kachanov, An historical overview of cavity-enhanced methods, Can. J. Phys., 83, 975-999 (2005).   DOI
23 C. Ramos and P. J. Dagdigian, Effect of photochemistry on molecular detection by cavity ringdown spectroscopy: case study of an explosive-related compound, Appl. Opt., 46, 6526-6532 (2007).   DOI
24 Y. Engel, R. Elnathan, A. Pevzner, G. Davidi, E. Flaxer, and F. Patolsky, Supersensitive detection of explosives by silicon nanowire arrays, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 49, 6830-6835 (2010).   DOI
25 S. Moon, D. K. Charyulu, W. Lee, and K. Lee, Controlling the geometric design of anodic 1D TiO2 nanotubes for the electrochemical reduction of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene in ambient conditions, J. Electroanal. Chem., 900, 115717 (2021).   DOI
26 H. Du, G. He, T. Liu, L. Ding, and Y. Fang, Preparation of pyrene-functionalized fluorescent film with a benzene ring in spacer and sensitive detection to picric acid in aqueous phase, J. Photochem. Photobiol., A, 217, 356-362 (2011).   DOI
27 J. Chen, Y. Chen, H. Zhao, G. J. Bastiaans, and X. C. Zhang, Absorption coefficients of selected explosives and related compounds in the range of 0.1-2.8 THz, Opt. Express, 15, 12060-12067 (2007).   DOI
28 N. L. Sanders, S. Kothari, G. Huang, G. Salazar, and R. G. Cooks, Detection of explosives as negative ions directly from surfaces using a miniature mass spectrometer, Anal. Chem., 82, 5313-5316 (2010).   DOI
29 Y. Fleger, L. Nagli, M. Gaft, and M. Rosenbluh, Narrow gated Raman and luminescence of explosives, J. Lumin., 129, 979-983 (2009).   DOI
30 G. Shi, Y. Qu, Y. Zhai, Y. Liu, Z. Sun, J. Yang, and L. Jin, {MSU/PDDA}n LBL assembled modified sensor for electrochemical detection of ultratrace explosive nitroaromatic compounds, Electrochem. Commun., 9, 1719-1724 (2007).   DOI
31 Y. Mou and J. W. Rabalais, Detection and identification of explosive particles in fingerprints using attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectromicroscopy, J. Forensic Sci., 54, 846-850 (2009).   DOI
32 M. R. Leahy-Hoppa, M. J. Fitch, X. Zheng, L. M. Hayden, and R. Osiander, Wideband terahertz spectroscopy of explosives, Chem. Phys. Lett., 434, 227-230 (2007).   DOI
33 T. Lo, I. S. Gregory, C. Baker, P. F. Taday, W. R. Tribe, and M. C. Kemp, The very far-infrared spectra of energetic materials and possible confusion materials using terahertz pulsed spectroscopy, Vib. Spectrosc., 42, 243-248 (2006).   DOI
34 O. M. Primera-Pedrozo, Y. M. Soto-Feliciano, L. C. PachecoLondono, and S. P. Hernandez-Rivera, Detection of High Explosives Using Reflection Absorption Infrared Spectroscopy with Fiber Coupled Grazing Angle Probe/FTIR, Sens. Imaging, 10, 1-13 (2009).   DOI
35 J. C. Sanchez, A. G. DiPasquale, A. L. Rheingold, and W. C. Trogler, Synthesis, Luminescence Properties, and Explosives Sensing with 1,1-Tetraphenylsilole- and 1,1-Silafluorene-vinylene Polymers, Chem. Mater., 19, 6459-6470 (2007).   DOI
36 Y. Takada, H. Nagano, M. Suga, Y. Hashimoto, M. Yamada, M. Sakairi, K. Kusumoto, T. Ota, and J. Nakamura, Detection of Military Explosives by Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry with Counter-Flow Introduction, Propellants Explos. Pyrotech., 27, 224-228 (2002).   DOI
37 F. M. Green, T. L. Salter, P. Stokes, I. S. Gilmore, and G. O'Connor, Ambient mass spectrometry: advances and applications in forensics, Surf. Interface Anal., 42, 347-357 (2010).   DOI
38 X.-C. Fu, X. Chen, J. Wang, J.-H. Liu, and X.-J. Huang, Amino functionalized mesoporous silica microspheres with perpendicularly aligned mesopore channels for electrochemical detection of trace 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, Electrochim. Acta, 56, 102-107 (2010).   DOI
39 J. C. Sanchez and W. C. Trogler, Efficient blue-emitting silafluorene-fluorene-conjugated copolymers: selective turn-off/turn-on detection of explosives, J. Mater. Chem., 18, 3143-3156 (2008).   DOI
40 T. Caron, S. Clavaguera, M. Huron, P. Montmeat, E. Pasquinet, J.-P. Lere-Porte, F. Serein-Spirau, F. Perraut, and P. J. C. E. T. Prene, Detection of explosive vapors: development and performances of a fluorescence sensor, Chem. Eng. Trans., 23, 25-30 (2010).
41 M. D. Woodka, V. P. Schnee, and M. P. Polcha, Fluorescent polymer sensor array for detection and discrimination of explosives in water, Anal. Chem., 82, 9917-9924 (2010).   DOI
42 Z. Takats, J. M. Wiseman, B. Gologan, and R. G. Cooks, Mass spectrometry sampling under ambient conditions with desorption electrospray ionization, Science, 306, 471-473 (2004).   DOI
43 K. Furton, The scientific foundation and efficacy of the use of canines as chemical detectors for explosives, Talanta, 54, 487-500 (2001).   DOI
44 B. Marshall, C. G. Warr, and M. de Bruyne, Detection of volatile indicators of illicit substances by the olfactory receptors of Drosophila melanogaster, Chem. Senses, 35, 613-625 (2010).   DOI
45 S. E. Stitzel, L. J. Cowen, K. J. Albert, and D. R. Walt, Array-to-array transfer of an artificial nose classifier, Anal. Chem., 73, 5266-5271 (2001).   DOI
46 R. B. Cody, J. A. Laramee, and H. D. Durst, Versatile new ion source for the analysis of materials in open air under ambient conditions, Anal. Chem., 77, 2297-2302 (2005).   DOI
47 J. M. Nilles, T. R. Connell, S. T. Stokes, and H. Dupont Durst, Explosives Detection Using Direct Analysis in Real Time (DART) Mass Spectrometry, Propellants Explos. Pyrotech., 35, 446-451 (2010).   DOI
48 H. Wang, W. Sun, J. Zhang, X. Yang, T. Lin, and L. Ding, Desorption corona beam ionization source for mass spectrometry, Analyst, 135, 688-695 (2010).   DOI
49 R. M. Alberici, R. C. Simas, G. B. Sanvido, W. Romao, P. M. Lalli, M. Benassi, I. B. Cunha, and M. N. Eberlin, Ambient mass spectrometry: bringing MS into the "real world", Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 398, 265-294 (2010).   DOI
50 M. G. Blain, L. S. Riter, D. Cruz, D. E. Austin, G. Wu, W. R. Plass, and R. G. Cooks, Towards the hand-held mass spectrometer: design considerations, simulation, and fabrication of micrometer-scaled cylindrical ion traps, Int. J. Mass Spectrom., 236, 91-104 (2004).   DOI
51 M. J. Waltman, P. Dwivedi, H. H. Hill, Jr., W. C. Blanchard, and R. G. Ewing, Characterization of a distributed plasma ionization source (DPIS) for ion mobility spectrometry and mass spectrometry, Talanta, 77, 249-255 (2008).   DOI
52 F. C. De Lucia, J. L. Gottfried, C. A. Munson, and A. W. Miziolek, Double pulse laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy of explosives: Initial study towards improved discrimination, Spectrochim. Acta B, 62, 1399-1404 (2007).   DOI
53 C. Bohling, K. Hohmann, D. Scheel, C. Bauer, W. Schippers, J. Burgmeier, U. Willer, G. Holl, and W. Schade, All-fiber-coupled laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy sensor for hazardous materials analysis, Spectrochim. Acta B, 62, 1519-1527 (2007).   DOI
54 R. G. Ewing and M. J. Waltman, Mechanisms for negative reactant ion formation in an atmospheric pressure corona discharge, Int. J. Ion Mobil. Spectrom., 12, 65-72 (2009).   DOI
55 S. Zimmermann, N. Abel, W. Baether, and S. Barth, An ion-focusing aspiration condenser as an ion mobility spectrometer, Sens. Actuators B Chem., 125, 428-434 (2007).   DOI
56 A. B. Kanu, C. Wu, and H. H. Hill, Jr., Rapid preseparation of interferences for ion mobility spectrometry, Anal. Chim. Acta, 610, 125-134 (2008).   DOI
57 H. B. Liu, Y. Chen, G. J. Bastiaans, and X. C. Zhang, Detection and identification of explosive RDX by THz diffuse reflection spectroscopy, Opt. Express, 14, 415-423 (2006).   DOI
58 D. S. Moore and R. J. Scharff, Portable Raman explosives detection, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 393, 1571-1578 (2009).   DOI
59 J. M. Wells, M. J. Roth, A. D. Keil, J. W. Grossenbacher, D. R. Justes, G. E. Patterson, and D. J. Barket, Jr., Implementation of DART and DESI ionization on a fieldable mass spectrometer, J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom., 19, 1419-1424 (2008).   DOI
60 C. C. Mulligan, N. Talaty, and R. G. Cooks, Desorption electrospray ionization with a portable mass spectrometer: in situ analysis of ambient surfaces, Chem. Commun., 1709-1711 (2006).
61 S. Singh, Sensors-an effective approach for the detection of explosives, J. Hazard. Mater., 144, 15-28 (2007).   DOI
62 M. Algarra, B. B. Campos, M. S. Miranda, and J. C. da Silva, CdSe quantum dots capped PAMAM dendrimer nanocomposites for sensing nitroaromatic compounds, Talanta, 83, 1335-1340 (2011).   DOI
63 G. P. Anderson, M. Moore, P. T. Charles, and E. R. Goldman, Bead-Based Fluid Array Detection of Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate: Comparison of Monoclonal vs. Llama Polyclonal Antibodies, Anal. Lett., 43, 2913-2922 (2010).   DOI
64 I. Cotte-Rodriguez, H. Hernandez-Soto, H. Chen, and R. G. Cooks, In situ trace detection of peroxide explosives by desorption electrospray ionization and desorption atmospheric pressure chemical ionization, Anal. Chem., 80, 1512-1519 (2008).   DOI
65 L. C. Pacheco-Londono, W. Ortiz-Rivera, O. M. Primera-Pedrozo, and S. P. Hernandez-Rivera, Vibrational spectroscopy standoff detection of explosives, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 395, 323-335 (2009).   DOI
66 A. Portnov, I. Bar, and S. Rosenwaks, Highly sensitive standoff detection of explosives via backward coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering, Appl. Phys. B, 98, 529-535 (2009).   DOI
67 F. W. Karasek and D. W. Denney, Detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene vapours in air by plasma chromatography, J. Chromatogr., 93, 141-147 (1974).   DOI
68 D. L. Woolard, R. Brown, M. Pepper, and M. Kemp, Terahertz Frequency Sensing and Imaging: A Time of Reckoning Future Applications?, Proc. IEEE, 93, 1722-1743 (2005).   DOI
69 E. Schramm, J. Holzer, M. Putz, R. Schulte-Ladbeck, R. Schultze, M. Sklorz, A. Ulrich, J. Wieser, and R. Zimmermann, Real-time trace detection of security-relevant compounds in complex sample matrices by thermal desorption-single photon ionization-ion trap mass spectrometry (TD-SPI-ITMS), Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 395, 1795-1807 (2009).   DOI
70 M. R. Leahy-Hoppa, M. J. Fitch, and R. Osiander, Terahertz spectroscopy techniques for explosives detection, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 395, 247-257 (2009).   DOI
71 H.-B. Liu, H. Zhong, N. Karpowicz, Y. Chen, and X.-C. Zhang, Terahertz Spectroscopy and Imaging for Defense and Security Applications, Proc. IEEE, 95, 1514-1527 (2007).   DOI
72 J. F. Federici, B. Schulkin, F. Huang, D. Gary, R. Barat, F. Oliveira, and D. Zimdars, THz imaging and sensing for security Applications-explosives, weapons and drugs, Semicond. Sci. Technol., 20, S266-S280 (2005).   DOI
73 J. I. Eum, A Study on Legislation for Introducing Aviation Security Equipments Certification System, Master Dissertation, Korea Aerospace University, Gyeonggi-do, Korea (2018).
74 W. Lee and K. Lee, Recent Research Trends in Explosive Detection through Electrochemical Methods, Appl. Chem. Eng., 30, 399-407 (2019).   DOI
75 J. S. Caygill, F. Davis, and S. P. Higson, Current trends in explosive detection techniques, Talanta, 88, 14-29 (2012).   DOI
76 Reliable Ministry of Government Legislation, Korea Law Information Center, Act No.14954, AVIATION SECURITY ACT [Website], (2021.09.25)
77 K. Nagatomo, T. Kawaguchi, N. Miura, K. Toko, and K. Matsumoto, Development of a sensitive surface plasmon resonance immunosensor for detection of 2,4-dinitrotoluene with a novel oligo (ethylene glycol)-based sensor surface, Talanta, 79, 1142-1148 (2009).   DOI
78 K. Cizek, C. Prior, C. Thammakhet, M. Galik, K. Linker, R. Tsui, A. Cagan, J. Wake, J. La Belle, and J. Wang, Integrated explosive preconcentrator and electrochemical detection system for 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) vapor, Anal. Chim. Acta, 661, 117-121 (2010).   DOI
79 S. Parajuli and W. Miao, Sensitive determination of hexamethylene triperoxide diamine explosives, using electrogenerated chemiluminescence enhanced by silver nitrate, Anal. Chem., 81, 5267-5272 (2009).   DOI
80 R. G. Ewing, D. A. Atkinson, G. A. Eiceman, and G. J. Ewing, A critical review of ion mobility spectrometry for the detection of explosives and explosive related compounds, Talanta, 54, 515-529 (2001).   DOI
81 C. F. Bernasconi, Kinetic and spectral study of some reactions of 2, 4, 6-trinitrotoluene in basic solution. I. Deprotonation and Janovsky complex formation, J. Org. Chem., 36, 1671-1679 (1971).   DOI
82 J. L. Gottfried, F. C. De Lucia, Jr., C. A. Munson, and A. W. Miziolek, Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for detection of explosives residues: a review of recent advances, challenges, and future prospects, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 395, 283-300 (2009).   DOI
83 J. S. Babis, R. P. Sperline, A. K. Knight, D. A. Jones, C. A. Gresham, and M. B. Denton, Performance evaluation of a miniature ion mobility spectrometer drift cell for application in hand-held explosives detection ion mobility spectrometers, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 395, 411-419 (2009).   DOI
84 E. M. Ali, H. G. Edwards, and I. J. Scowen, In-situ detection of single particles of explosive on clothing with confocal Raman microscopy, Talanta, 78, 1201-1203 (2009).   DOI
85 E. M. A. Ali, H. G. M. Edwards, and I. J. Scowen, Raman spectroscopy and security applications: the detection of explosives and precursors on clothing, J. Raman Spectrosc., 40, 2009-2014 (2009).   DOI
86 G. Berden, R. Peeters, and G. Meijer, Cavity ring-down spectroscopy: Experimental schemes and applications, Int. Rev. Phys. Chem., 19, 565-607 (2010).   DOI
87 C. Ramos and P. J. Dagdigian, Detection of vapors of explosives and explosive-related compounds by ultraviolet cavity ringdown spectroscopy, Appl. Opt., 46, 620-627 (2007).   DOI
88 S. J. Peppernick, K. D. Dasitha Gunaratne, and A. W. Castleman, Towards comprehending the superatomic state of matter, Chem. Phys. Lett., 489, 1-11 (2010).   DOI
89 D. Gao, Z. Wang, B. Liu, L. Ni, M. Wu, and Z. Zhang, Resonance energy transfer-amplifying fluorescence quenching at the surface of silica nanoparticles toward ultrasensitive detection of TNT, Anal. Chem., 80, 8545-8553 (2008).   DOI
90 F. Wang, W. Wang, B. Liu, Z. Wang, and Z. Zhang, Copolypeptide-doped polyaniline nanofibers for electrochemical detection of ultra-trace trinitrotoluene, Talanta, 79, 376-382 (2009).   DOI
91 J. Wang, Analytical Electrochemistry: Study of electrode reactions and interfacial properties, Wiley (2006).
92 P. Singh, T. Onodera, Y. Mizuta, K. Matsumoto, N. Miura, and K. Toko, Dendrimer modified biochip for detection of 2,4,6 trinitrotoluene on SPR immunosensor: Fabrication and advantages, Sens. Actuators B Chem., 137, 403-409 (2009).   DOI
93 A. Diaz Aguilar, E. S. Forzani, M. Leright, F. Tsow, A. Cagan, R. A. Iglesias, L. A. Nagahara, I. Amlani, R. Tsui, and N. J. Tao, A hybrid nanosensor for TNT vapor detection, Nano Lett., 10, 380-384 (2010).   DOI
94 L. Agui, D. Vega-Montenegro, P. Yanez-Sedeno, and J. M. Pingarron, Rapid voltammetric determination of nitroaromatic explosives at electrochemically activated carbon-fibre electrodes, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 382, 381-387 (2005).   DOI
95 J. Zang, C. X. Guo, F. Hu, L. Yu, and C. M. Li, Electrochemical detection of ultratrace nitroaromatic explosives using ordered mesoporous carbon, Anal. Chim. Acta, 683, 187-191 (2011).   DOI
96 J. Wang, Electrochemical Sensing of Explosives, Electroanalysis, 19, 415-423 (2007).   DOI
97 Chemring Group and Cobham, Global Explosive Detection Equipment Market 2019-2023, TechNavio (Infiniti Research Ltd.)
98 J. Yinon, Detection of Explosives by Mass Spectrometry in Counterterrorist Detection Techniques of Explosives, Elsevier, Netherlands (2007).
99 Y. Song and R. G. Cooks, Atmospheric pressure ion/molecule reactions for the selective detection of nitroaromatic explosives using acetonitrile and air as reagents, Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom., 20, 3130-3138 (2006).   DOI
100 C. Mullen, A. Irwin, B. V. Pond, D. L. Huestis, M. J. Coggiola, and H. Oser, Detection of explosives and explosives-related compounds by single photon laser ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, Anal. Chem., 78, 3807-3814 (2006).   DOI
101 R. G. Cooks, Z. Ouyang, Z. Takats, and J. M. Wiseman, Detection Technologies. Ambient mass spectrometry, Science, 311, 1566-1570 (2006).   DOI
102 M. E. Koscho, R. H. Grubbs, and N. S. Lewis, Properties of vapor detector arrays formed through plasticization of carbon black-organic polymer composites, Anal. Chem., 74, 1307-1315 (2002).   DOI
103 I. Gazit and J. Terkel, Explosives detection by sniffer dogs following strenuous physical activity, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 81, 149-161 (2003).   DOI
104 J. Otto, M. F. Brown, and W. Long, Training rats to search and alert on contraband odors, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 77, 217-232 (2002).   DOI
105 J. Yinon, Peer Reviewed: Detection of Explosives by Electronic Noses, Anal. Chem., 75, 98 A-105 A (2003).   DOI
106 H. Wohltjen and R. Dessy, Surface acoustic wave probe for chemical analysis. I. Introduction and instrument description, Anal. Chem., 51, 1458-1464 (2002).   DOI
107 R. Glatz and K. Bailey-Hill, Mimicking nature's noses: from receptor deorphaning to olfactory biosensing, Prog. Neurobiol., 93, 270-296 (2011).   DOI
108 D. R. Justes, N. Talaty, I. Cotte-Rodriguez, and R. G. Cooks, Detection of explosives on skin using ambient ionization mass spectrometry, Chem. Commun., 2142-2144 (2007).