Browse > Article
http://dx.doi.org/10.22679/avs.2021.6.2.005

Silk and Cotton Textiles, the Principal Maritime Trade Commodities of Ancient India  

DAYALAN, Duraiswamy (Archaeological Survey of India)
Publication Information
Acta Via Serica / v.6, no.2, 2021 , pp. 91-116 More about this Journal
Abstract
India has had a rich and diverse textile tradition since the 3rd millennium BCE. The origin of Indian textiles can be traced back to the Harappan period. Owing to the hot and humid climate in most parts of India, cotton has remained India's favourite choice of fabric for normal use. Thus, India is supposed to be the first nation to have grown, woven, and patterned cotton fabrics. Moreover, India is one of the leading cotton-growing countries in the world. The earliest occurrence of cotton thread in India is roughly datable to 4000 BCE and of dyed fabrics to about 2500 BCE. Large numbers of needles and spindle-whorls found in Harappa and other early historic sites in India reveal the prosperous state of textile production and its trade in the early period. The textile producers used a wide range of skills to process raw materials and make regionally idiosyncratic dyes, weaves, prints, and embroideries. Additionally, the silk from wild indigenous forms of silkworms was known in the Indian sub-continent roughly contemporary with the earliest clear archaeological evidence for silk in China. The analysis of thread fragments found inside a copper bangle and ornament from Harappa and steatite beads from Chanhu-daro, have yielded silk fibers dating to 2500-2000 BCE. Apart from other products, cotton and silk textiles were important export materials from India right from the Harappan period. Actually, the sea-borne trade had played an important role in the economic growth and prosperity of the Harappan civilization. Several ancient seaports in the entire coastline of India played a vital role in the maritime trade during the Harappan period and cotton and silk textiles of Indian origin have been found in various countries. The contemporary writings and epigraphy have also attested to the vast maritime trade network of India and the export of textile materials. The paper discusses in detail the origin and development of cotton and silk textile production in India through the ages and its role in maritime trade networks.
Keywords
Cotton; Silk; Textile; Maritime Trade; Harappan; seaport;
Citations & Related Records
연도 인용수 순위
  • Reference
1 Sahni, Rai Bahadur Dayaram. Archaeological Remains and Excavations at Bairat. Jaipur: Department of Archaeology & Historical Research Jaipur State, 1910.
2 Wheeler, R. E. W., A. Ghosh, and Krishna Deva, "Arikamedu: An Indo-Roman Trading Station on the East Coast of India." Ancient India 2 (1946): 17-124. https://asi.nic.in/Ancient_India/Ancient_India_Volume_2/article_3.pdf.
3 Wild, J.P. and F.C. Wild. "Rome and India: Early Indian Cotton Textiles from Berenike, Red Sea Coast of Egypt." In Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies, edited by Ruth Barnes, 10-15. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005.
4 Wolters, O.W. "Early Indonesian Commerce and the Origins of Srivijaya." PhD diss., University of London, 1962.
5 Zhou, Kuangming. "Qianshanyang canjuanpian chutu de qishi (Illuminating Remarks on the Fragments of Silk Excavated at Qianshanyang)." Wenwu 1 (1980): 74-77.
6 Weber, Steven. "Seeds of Urbanism: Paleoethnobotany and the Indus civilization." Antiquity 73, no. 282 (1999): 813-826.   DOI
7 Wild, J.P., F.C. Wild, and A.J. Clapham. "Roman Cotton Revisited." In Purpureae Vestes II Symposium Internacional sobre Textiles y Tintes del Mediterraneo en el mundo antiguo, edited by C. Alfaro and L. Karali, 143-147. Valencia: University of Valencia, 2008.
8 Wild, J.P., "Cotton in Roman Egypt: Some Problems of Origin." Al-Rafidan XVIII (1997): 287-298.
9 Wild, J.P. and F.C. Wild. "Berenike and Textile Trade on the Indian Ocean." In Textile Trade and Distribution in Antiquity- Textilhandel und distribution in der Antike, edited by Herausgegeben von Kerstin DroB-Krupe, 91-109. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2014.
10 Wild, J.P. and F.C. Wild. "Textiles." In Berenike '98: Report of the 1998 Excavations at Berenike and the Survey of the Egyptian Eastern Desert including Excavations in Wadi Kalalat, edited by Willemina Wendrich and Stephen Sidebotham, 251-274. Leiden: Universiteit Leiden, 2001.
11 Yule, Sir Henry, trans, ed. The Book of Ser Marco Polo, 2 Vols. London: John Murry, 1903.
12 Yusuf, Syed. "Paithan Excavations." Annual Report of the Archaeological Department of His Exalted Highness the Nizams's Dominions, 1936-37. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1939.
13 Ziegler, Delphine. "The Cult of the Wuyi Mountains and its Cultivation of the Past: A Topo-Cultural Perspective." Cahiers d'Extreme-Asie 10 (1998): 255-286, https://doi.org/10.3406/asie.1996.1116.   DOI
14 Cattani, Maurizio, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Dennys Frenez, Randall W. Law, and Sophie Mery. "New Excavations at the Umm an-Nar Site Ras al-Hadd HD-1, Sultanate of Oman (seasons 2016-2018): insights on cultural interaction and long-distance trade." Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 49 (2019): 69-84.
15 Betts, A., K. van der Borg, A. de Jong, C. McClintock, and M. van Stryndonck. "Early Cotton in North Arabia." Journal of Archaeological Science 21 (1994): 489-499. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1994.1049.   DOI
16 Buddhadatta, Polwatte, ed. Kalyani Silalipi. Colombo, 1924.
17 Buhler, G. "A Prakrit Grant of the Pallava King Sivaskandavarman," In Epigraphia Indica (EI), Vol. I, Archaeological Survey of India, edited by Jas Burgess, 2-10. Calcutta: Government Printing, 1892.
18 Chaturvijaya, Guru and Sishya Punyavijaya, eds. Brihatkalpasutra and Original Niryukti of Sthavir Arya Bhadrabahu Swami, Vol. III. Bhavnagar: Shri Atmanand Jain Sabha, 1936.
19 Marshall, Sir John. Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization, Vol. I. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931.
20 Boivin, Nicole, Roger Blench, and Dorian Q. Fuller. "Archaeological, Linguistic and Historical Sources on Ancient Seafaring: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Study of Early Maritime Contact and Exchange in the Arabian Peninsula." In The Evolution of Human Populations in Arabia, Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology, edited by M.D. Petraglia and J.I. Rose, 251-278. Heidelberg: Springer Dordrecht, 2009.
21 Chandra, Moti. "The History of Indian Costume from the 1st century A.D. to the Beginning of the 4th century." Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art VIII (1940): 185-224.
22 Cleuziou, Serge, and Maurizo Tosi. "Ra's al-Jinz and the Prehistoric Coastal Cultures of the Ja'alan." Journal of Oman Studies 11 (2000):19-73.
23 Cowell, E.B., and R.A. Neil., eds. Divyavadana, A Collection of Early Buddhist Legends. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1886.
24 Buhler, Alfred, Eberhard Fischer, and Marie-Louise Nabholz-Kartaschoff. Indian Tie-dyed Fabrics. Ahmedabad: Calico Museum, 1980.
25 Cameron, Judith Anne. "Textile Technology in the Prehistory of Southeast Asia," Vol. 1. PhD diss., The Australian National University, Canberra, 2002.
26 Chandra, Moti. Costumes, Textiles, Cosmetics and Coiffure in Ancient and Mediaeval India. Delhi: Oriental Publishers, 1973.
27 Cleuziou, Serge, and S. Mery. "In-between the Great Powers: The Bronze Age Oman Peninsula." In Essays on the Late Prehistory of the Arabian Peninsula Serie Orientale Roma, 93n, edited by M. Tosi, S. Cleuziou and J. Zarins, 273-316. Rome: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa el' Oriente (IsIAO), 2002.
28 Goitein, S.B., and Mordechai Akiva Friedman, eds. Indian Traders of the Middle Ages: Documents from the Cairo Geniza ("India Book"). Leiden: Brill, 2008.
29 Good, I.L., J.M. Kenoyer and R.H. Meadow. "New Evidence for Early silk in the Indus Civilization." Archaeometry 51, no. 3 (2009): 457-66, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00454.x.   DOI
30 Good, I.L., J.M. Kenoyer, and R.H. Meadow. "A Reply to Ji-Huan He." Archaeometry, 53, no. 6 (2011): 1257-1258, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2011.00591.x.   DOI
31 Schlingloff, D. "Cotton-Manufacture in Ancient India" Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 17, no. 1 (March, 1974): 81-90.   DOI
32 Fuller, Dorian, Ravi Korisettar, P. C. Venkatasubbaiah and Martin K. Jones, "Early Plant Domestications in Southern India: Some Preliminary Archaeobotanical Results." Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 13, no. 2 (2004):115-129, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-004-0036-9.   DOI
33 Glover, Ian. "Ban Don Ta Phet: the 1984-85 Excavation." In Southeast Asian Archaeology 1986, Proceedings of the First Conference of the Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe, BAR International Series 561, edited by Ian Glover and Emily Glover, 139-183. Oxford: Archaeopress, 1990.
34 Rossen, Jack. "Preceramic Plant Gathering, Gardening, and Farming." In From Foraging to Farming in the Andes: New Perspectives on Food Production and Social Organization, edited by Tom D. Dillehay, 177-192. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
35 Saraswat, K.S. "Agricultural Background of the Early Farming Communities in the Middle Ganga Plain." Pragdhara 15 (2005): 145-177.
36 Saraswat, K.S. "Ancient crop remains from Sringeverapura, Allahabad, U.P. (ca. 1,050-700 B.C.)." Geophytology 16, no. 1 (1986): 97-106.
37 Saraswat, K.S. "Plant Economy of Late Harappans at Hulas." Purattatva 23 (1993): 1-12.
38 Saraswat, K.S., and A.K. Pokharia. "Palaeoethnobotanical Investigations at Early Harappan Kunal." Pragdhara 13 (2003):105-140.
39 Schoen, Brian. The Fragile Fabric of Union: Cotton, Federal Politics, and the Global Origins of the Civil War. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.
40 Lewin, Menachem, ed. Cotton Fiber Chemistry and Technology (International Fiber Science and Technology Series). Florida: CRC Press, 2007.
41 Pillay, K.K. A Social History of the Tamils. Madras: University of Madras, 1975.
42 Kahlenberg, Mary Hunt, "Who Influenced Whom? The Indian Textile Trade to Sumatra and Java." In Textiles from India: The Global Trade, edited by Rosemary Crill, 135-50. Oxford: Seagull Books, 2006.
43 Kalidasa, Kumarasambhavam. Translated by Hank Heifetz, Gurgaon: Penguin Books, 2014.
44 Kennedy, Philip F. and Shawkat M. Toorawa, eds. Two Arabic Travel Books: Abu Zayd al-Sirafi, Accounts of China and India, edited and translated by Tim Mackintosh-Smith; Ahmad Ibn Fadlan, Mission to the Volga, edited and translated by James E. Montgomery. New York: New York University Press, 2014.
45 Polo, Marco. The Travels of Marco Polo: the complete Yule-Cordier Edition: including the unabridged third edition (1903) of Henry Yule's annotated translation, as revised by Henri Cordier, together with Cordier's later volume of notes and addenda (1920). New York: Dover Publications, 1993.
46 Possehl, G.L. "From Sumer to Meluhha: Contributions to the Archaeology of South and West Asia in Memory of George F. Dales, Jr." In Wisconsin Archaeological Report 3, edited by J.M. Kenoyer, 179-86. 1994.
47 Possehl, G.L. "Seafaring Merchants of Meluhha." South Asian Archaeology 1995, 87-99. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Pub., 1997.
48 Pruthi, R.K. (ed.). The Indus Civilization. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, 2004.
49 Tosi, Maurizo. "A Possible Harappan Seaport in Eastern Arabia: Ra's Al-Junayz in the Sultanate of Oman." Paper presented in the First International Conference on Pakistan Archaeology, Peshawar, 1982.
50 Thornton C.P. "Mesopotamia, Meluhha, and those in Between." In The Sumerian World, edited by H.E.W. Crawford, 598-617. London: Routledge, 2013.
51 Tripathi, V. "Metals and Metallurgy in the Harappan Civilization." Indian Journal of History of Science 53, no. 3 (2018): 279-295. https://doi.org/10.16943/ijhs/2018/v53i3/49460.   DOI
52 Watters, Thomas. On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India 629-645 A.D. London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1904.
53 Shamasatry, R., trans. Kautilya's Arthasastra, Bangalore: Government Press, 1915.
54 Puri, K.N. Excavations at Rairh during Samvat Years 1995 & 1996 (1938-39 & 1939-40 A.D). Jaipur: Department of Archaeology & Historical Research Jaipur State, 1941.
55 Rao, S.R., Lothal - A Harappan Port Town 1955-62, Vol. II, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, No. 78. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1985.
56 Ratnasooriya, Vajira, ed. Daladasirita. Colombo: Government Press, 1949.
57 Lubec, G., J. Holaubek, J., C. Feldl, B. Lubec, and E. Strouhal. "Use of silk in Ancient Egypt." Nature 362, no. 6415 (1993): 25, https://doi.org/10.1038/362025b0.   DOI
58 Hultzsch, E. trans, ed. South Indian Inscriptions (SII), Vol. 2, Archaeological Survey of India, Madras: Government Press, 1891, 342-361.
59 Kharakwal, J.S., Y.S. Rawat and T. Osada. "Kanmer: A Harappan Site in Kachchh, Gujarat, India." In Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past (Indus Project, Occasional Paper 2), edited by Toshiki Osada, 21-46. Kyoto: Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, 2007.
60 Krishnamacharlu, C.R. "Vilavatti Grant of Pallava Simhavarman," In Epigraphia Indica (EI), Vol. XXIV, Archaeological Survey of India, edited by N.P. Chakravarti, 296-303. Calcutta: Government of India Press, 1942.
61 Mahalingam, T.V. "The Pullur Plates of Nandivarman II Pallavamalla, Year 33," In Epigraphia Indica (EI), Vol. XXXVI, Archaeological Survey of India, edited by D.C. Sircar, H.K. Narasimhaswami and G.S. Gai. 144-163. Calcutta: Government of India Press, 1970.
62 Dikshit, M.G., Excavations at Kaundinyapura. Bombay, The Director of Achieves and Archaeology, Maharashtra State, 1968.
63 Menon, Meena and Uzramma. A Frayed History: The Journey of Cotton in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2017.
64 Kuhn, D. "The Silk Workshops of the Shang Dynasty 16th-11th Century BC." In Explorations in the history of science and technology in China, edited by Hu Daojing,367-408. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1982.
65 Kerlogue, Fiona. "Textiles of Jambi (Sumatra) and the Indian Ocean Trade." In Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies, edited by Ruth Barnes, 126-145. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005.
66 Marshall, Sir John. Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization, Vol. II, London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931.
67 McCrindle, J.W. Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and Arrian. London: Trubner & Co, 1877. (Reprint.) Calcutta: Chuckervertty, Chatterjee & Co., Ltd., 1960.
68 McKean, M.B. "The Palynology of Balakot, a Pre-Harappan and Harappan Age Site in Las Bela, Pakistan." PhD diss., Southern Methodist University, 1983.
69 Majumdar, R.C., ed. The Age of Imperial Kanauj. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1955.
70 Dayalan, D., "The Origin of Silk Production." SilkRoadia - The Silk- Road Universities Network's Web Magazine 1 (Winter 2019): 7-12. http://www.sun-silkroadia.org/board/view?bd_id=webzine&wr_id=561.
71 Encyclopedia of India-China Cultural Contacts, Vol. I. New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, 2014.
72 Dillehay, Tom, D., J. Rossen, T. C. Andres, and D. E. Williams. "Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru." Science 316 (2007): 1890-1893, https://www.jstor.org/stable/20036586.   DOI
73 Goodrich, L.C. "Cotton in China." Isis 34 (1934): 408-410, https://doi.org/10.1086/347858.   DOI
74 Gulati, A.N. and Arthur James Turner. A Note on the Early History of Cotton. Indian Central Cotton Committee Technological Laboratory Bulletin, No. 17, Technological Series, No. 12. Bombay, 1928.
75 Possehl, G.L. "Meluhha." In The Indian Ocean in Antiquity, edited by Julian Reade, 133-208. London: Routledge, 1996.
76 Cleuziou, Serge, and Maurizo Tosi. "Black Boats of Magan: Some Thoughts on Bronze-Age Water Transport in Oman and Beyond from the Impressed Bitumen Slabs of Ra's al-Junayz." In A. Parpola and P. Koskilliop, eds., South Asian Archaeology 1993, Vol. 2, 745-761. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedakatemia, 1994.
77 Saraswat, K.S. "Plant Economy of Barans at Ancient Sanghol (Ca. 1900-1400 B.C.), Punjab." Pragdhara 7 (1997): 97-114.
78 Scheil, V. "Un Nouveau Sceau Hindou Pseudo-Sumerien." Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archeologie orientale XXII, no. 2 (1925): 55-56.
79 Schoff, Wilfred H. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea -Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century. New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1912.
80 Dayalan, D., Computer application in Indian Epigraphy (Pallava Period). 3 vols. Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan, 2005.
81 Fuller, Dorian Q. "The Spread of Textile Production and Textile Crops in India Beyond the Harappan Zone: An Aspect of the Emergence of Craft Specialization and Systematic Trade." In Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past (Indus Project, Occasional Paper 3), edited by Toshiki Osada and Akinori Uesugi, 1-26. Kyoto: Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, 2008.
82 Gadd, C.J. "Seal of Ancient Indian Style found at Ur." In Proceedings of the British Academy, Vol. XVIII. London: Humphrey Milford Amen House, E.C., 1932.
83 Ghosh, A. An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, Vol. I. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1989.
84 Ghosh, A. An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, Vol. II, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1989.
85 Ghosh, A., ed. Indian Archaeology - A Review, 1959-60. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1960. 1996 (Reprint): http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201959-60%20A%20Review.pdf.
86 Ghosh, G.K., and Shukla Ghosh. Indian Textiles (Past and Present). New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation, 1995.
87 Ghosh, S.S., "Study of Ancient Fabric and its Identification." Bulletin of the Hyderabad Archaeological Survey 17 (1953).
88 Handley, F.J.L., "Quseir al-Qadim 2003: the textiles." Archaeological Textiles Newsletter 38 (2004): 27-30.
89 Gopal, Lallanji. "Textiles in Ancient India." Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 4, no. 1 (1961): 53-69.   DOI
90 Gulati, A.N. "A Note on the Early History of Silk in India." In Technical Reports on Archaeological Remains, edited by J. Clutton Brock, K. Vishnu Mittre and A. Gulati, 53-59. Poona: Deccan College, 1961.
91 Hirth, Friedrich, and W.W. Rockhill, trans., and annotated. Chau Ju-kua: his work on the Chinese and Arab trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, entitled Chu-fan-chi. St. Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1911.
92 Hultzsch, E. "Rayakota Plates of Skandasishya," In Epigraphia Indica (EI), Vol. V, Archaeological Survey of India, edited by E. Hultzsch, 49-53. Calcutta: Government Printing, 1959.
93 Hultzsch, E. trans, ed. South Indian Inscriptions (SII), Vol. 1, Archaeological Survey of India, Madras: Government Press, 1890, 144-155.
94 Iyer, U. Ve., Saminatha, ed. Purananuru. Chennai: S.I.S.S.W. Publishing Society, 1935.
95 Jayatilaka, D.B., ed. Saddharmaratnavali. Colombo, 1930.
96 Dayalan, D., "Ancient Seaports on the Western Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network." Acta Via Serica 3, no. 2 (2018): 49-72, https://doi.org/10.22679/avs.2018.3.2.003.   DOI
97 Pandey, Ritu. "History of linen in Indian Subcontinent." Agropedia. http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/history-linen-indian-subcontinent.
98 Cleuziou, Serge, and Maurizo Tosi. In the Shadow of the Ancestors. The Prehistoric Foundations of the Early Arabian Civilization in Oman. Muscat: Ministry of Heritage and Culture of the Sultanate of Oman, 2007.
99 Costantini, L., "The Beginning of Agriculture in the Kachi Plain: The Evidence of Mehrgarh." In South Asian Archaeology 1981, edited by B. Allchin, 29-33. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
100 Dales, G.F. "Some Fresh Approaches to Old Problems in Harappan Archaeology." In Studies in the Archaeology of India and Pakistan, edited by J. Jacobson, 117-136. Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Company, 1986.
101 Fadlan, Ahmad Ibn. Mission to the Volga. Edited and translated by James E. Montgomery. New York: New York University Press, 2014.
102 Iyer, U. Ve., Saminatha, ed. Silappatikaram. Chennai: Kapir Accukkutam, 1950.
103 Nainar, S. Muhammad Husayn. Arab Geographers' Knowledge of Southern India (Madras University Islamic Series 6). Madras: University of Madras, 1942.
104 Mohan, R. and V. Nagarajan, eds. Pattuppattu Vol. 1 & 2. Chennai: New Century Book House (Pvt) Ltd., 2004.
105 Pandey, Suniti. "Technique of Cotton Textile in Ancient India (up to 6th century A.D." Proceeding of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 66, (2005-2006): 191-198.
106 Moulherat Christophe, Margareta Tengberg, Jerome F. Haquet and Benoit Mille. "First Evidence of Cotton at Neolithic Mehrgarh, Pakistan: Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead." Journal of Archaeological Science 29 (2002): 1393-1401. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.2001.0779   DOI
107 Nattar, Venkatasami Na. Mu., and R. Venkatachalam Pillai, eds. Akananuru (Poem and Text). Chennai: S. I. S. S. W. Publishing Society, 1957.
108 Olivelle, Patrick, trans., ed. Dharmasutras: The Law Codes of Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana and Vasistha, New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 1999.
109 Plu, A. "Bois et grains." In La Momie de Ramses II. Contribution Scientifi que a l'Egyptologie, edited by L. Balout and C. Roubet, 166-74. Paris: Editions Recherches sur les Civilisations, 1985.
110 Possehl, G.L. "Indus-Mesopotamian Trade: The Record in the Indus." Extraitd'Iranica Antiqua 37, (2002): 326-342. https://doi.org/10.2143/IA.37.0.127.   DOI
111 Ranasingha, D.D. ed., Dambadeni Asna, Colombo: J.D. Pranandu, 1928.
112 Ratnagar, S. Encounters, the Westerly Trade of the Harappa Civilization. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1981.
113 Tosi, Maurizo. "The Proto Urban Cultures of Eastern Iran and Indus Civilization. Notes and Suggestions for a Spatio-temporal Frame to Study the Early Relation between India and Iran." In South Asian Archaeology 1977, edited by M. Taddei, 149-171. Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1979.
114 Andres-Toledo, Miguel Angel. "Some Considerations about Vedic, Avestan and Indoiranian Textile Terminology." In Textile Terminologies in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean from the Third to the First Millennia BC, edited by Cecile Michel and Marie-Louise Bech Nosch, 430-444. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2010.
115 Rao, S.R. Lothal: A Harappan Port Town, 1955-62, Vol. I, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India 78. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1979.
116 Gittinger, Mattiebelle. Master Dyers to the World Technique and Trade in Early Indian Dyed Cotton Textiles. Washington, DC: Textile Museum, 1982.
117 Vainker, Shelagh. Chinese Silk: A Cultural History. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2004.
118 Kalidasa, Raghuvamsam. Translated by A.N.D. Haksar, Gurgaon: Penguin Books, 2016.
119 Perera, B.J. "Foreign Trade and Commerce of Ancient Ceylon, Part IV." Ceylon Historical Journal II, Nos. 1 and 2 (1952): 14-22.
120 Sugunasara, Kalapaluvave, ed., Saddharmaratnakara, Colombo: Ratnakara Press, 1912.
121 Watt, George. The Commercial Products of India. London: John Murry, 1908.
122 Potts, D.T. Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations. London: The Athlone Press, 1997.
123 Shrigondekar, G.K., ed. Manasollasa of King Somesvara, Vol. III. Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1961.
124 al-Tajir, Sulayman. Ancient Accounts of India and China, by two Mohammedan Travellers, Who Went to those Parts in the 9th century; Translated from the Arabic, by the Late Learned Eusebius Renaudot, with Notes, Illustrations and Inquiries by the Same Hand. London: Printed for Sam. Harding, 1733.