Journal of Korea Trade

Korea Trade Research Association (한국무역학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Factors Contributing to Recommendation Intention of Foreign Tourists in Times of Crisis: A Moderated Moderation Analysis

  • Ko-Woon Kim (Deparment of International Trade, Dongguk University) ;
  • Seung-Gee Hong (Department of International Trade, Dongguk University)
  • Received : 2022.08.30
  • Accepted : 2023.02.10
  • Published : 2023.02.28
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Purpose - As a leading source of foreign exchange and investment, tourism has grown in importance as a component of international trade. Accordingly, in recent decades much attention has been directed toward attracting foreign tourists and, in turn, positively affecting the recommendation intentions of foreign tourists. Despite such interests, there remains a dearth of empirical research on this issue. Moreover, prior research has focused primarily on the simple main effect of a certain factor on recommendation intentions. Therefore, the present study aims to (1) investigate the effect of overall satisfaction on the recommendation intentions of foreign tourists, and (2) examine the potential moderating effects of personal factors (i.e., age and destination image) on the association between overall satisfaction and recommendation intention. Design/methodology - Using a moderated moderation analysis of the data drawn from the 2018 International Visitor Survey conducted by the Korea Tourism Organization, this study proposes the three-way interaction effects of overall satisfaction, age, and destination image on recommendation intention. Findings - The findings of the study indicate that overall satisfaction is positively associated with recommendation intention and this relationship becomes stronger among younger tourists. The findings further indicate that the moderating effect of age on the relationship between overall satisfaction and recommendation intention depends on changes in the image of the destination. Specifically, the destination image exerts a positive moderating impact on the influence of age that moderates the overall satisfaction and recommendation intention relationship. Originality/value - Considering that the tourism economy has been severely affected by the current COVID-19 pandemic, this study contributes to a more accurate understanding of the factors affecting the recommendation intention, especially in times of crisis.

Keywords

References

  1. Abubakar, B. and F. Mavondo (2014), "Tourism Destinations: Antecedents to Customer Satisfaction and Positive Word-of-Mouth", Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 23(8), 833-864. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2013.796865
  2. Afshardoost, M. and M. S. Eshaghi (2020), "Destination Image and Tourist Behavioural Intentions: A Meta-Analysis", Tourism Management, 81, 104-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104154
  3. Agapito, D., P. O. Do Valle and J. D. C. Mendes (2012), "Understanding Tourist Recommendation Through Destination Image: A Chaid Analysis", Tourism & Management Studies, 7, 33-42.
  4. Al-Ansi, A. and Hee-Sup Han (2019), "Role of Halal-Friendly Destination Performances, Value, Satisfaction, and Trust in Generating Destination Image and Loyalty", Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 13, 51-60.
  5. Aliman, N. K., S. M. Hashim, S. D. M. Wahid and S. Harudin (2016), "Tourists Satisfaction with a Destination: An Investigation on Visitors to Langkawi Island", International Journal of Marketing Studies, 8(3), 173-188. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijms.v8n3p173
  6. Assaker, G., V. E. Vinzi and P. O'Connor (2011), "Examining the Effect of Novelty Seeking, Satisfaction, and Destination Image on Tourists' Return Pattern: A Two Factor, Non-Linear Latent Growth Model", Tourism Management, 32(4), 890-901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.08.004
  7. Bae, Eun-Song, Mee-Hyang Chang, Eung-Suk Park and Dae-Cheol Kim (2017), "The Effect of Hallyu on Tourism in Korea", Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 3(4), 22-34. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40852-017-0075-y
  8. Bartlett, M. Y. and D. DeSteno (2006), "Gratitude and Prosocial Behavior: Helping When It Costs You", Psychological Science, 17(4), 319-325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01705.x
  9. Barbagallo, P. (2003), "Teens", Target Marketing, 26(4), 65-68.
  10. Becker, L. C. (1986), Reciprocity, New York, NY: Routledge.
  11. Beeho, A. J. and R. C. Prentice (1997), "Conceptualizing the Experiences of Heritage Tourists: A Case Study of New Lanark World Heritage Village", Tourism Management, 18(2), 75-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(96)00103-3
  12. Benckendorff, P., G. Moscardo and D. Pendergast (2010), Tourism and Generation Y, Cambridge, MA: CAB International.
  13. Berger, J. (2014), "Word of Mouth and Interpersonal Communication: A Review and Directions for Future Research", Journal of Consumer Psychology, 24(4), 586-607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2014.05.002
  14. Berhanu, K. and S. Raj (2020), "The Trustworthiness of Travel and Tourism Information Sources of Social Media: Perspectives of International Tourists Visiting Ethiopia", Heliyon, 6(3), e03439.
  15. Bigne, J. E., M. I. Sanchez and J. Sanchez (2001), "Tourism Image, Evaluation Variables and After Purchase Behaviour: Inter-Relationship", Tourism Management, 22(6), 607-616. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(01)00035-8
  16. Bolton, R. N., A. Parasuraman, A. Hoefnagels, N. Migchels, S. Kabadayi, T. Gruber et al. (2013), "Understanding Generation Y and Their Use of Social Media: A Review and Research Agenda", Journal of Service Management, 24(3), 245-267. https://doi.org/10.1108/09564231311326987
  17. Book, L. A., S. Tanford, R. Montgomery and C. Love (2018), "Online Traveler Reviews as Social Influence: Price is No Longer King", Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 42(3), 445-475. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348015597029
  18. Buck, R. (2004), "The Gratitude of Exchange and the Gratitude of Caring: A Developmental-Interactionist Perspective of Moral Emotion". In A. E. Robert and E. M. Michael (Eds.), The Psychology of Gratitude, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 100-122.
  19. Chawdhary, R. and F. D. Riley (2015), "Investigating the Consequences of Word of Mouth from a WOM sender's Perspective in the Services Context", Journal of Marketing Management, 31(9-10), 1018-1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2015.1033443
  20. Chen, J. S. and C. H. Hsu (2000), "Measurement of Korean tourists' Perceived Images of Overseas Destinations", Journal of Travel Research, 38(4), 411-416. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728750003800410
  21. Chen, C. F. and D. Tsai (2007), "How Destination Image and Evaluative Factors Affect Behavioral Intentions?" Tourism Management, 28(4), 1115-1122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.07.007
  22. Chi, C. G. Q. and H. Qu (2008), "Examining the Structural Relationships of Destination Image, Tourist Satisfaction and Destination Loyalty: An Integrated Approach", Tourism Management, 29(4), 624-636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2007.06.007
  23. Choi, T. Y. and R. Chu (2001), "Determinants of Hotel Guests' Satisfaction and Repeat Patronage in the Hong Kong Hotel Industry", International Journal of Hospitality Management, 20(3), 277-297. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-4319(01)00006-8
  24. Chon, Kye-Sung (1989), "Understanding Recreational Traveler's Motivation, Attitude and Satisfaction", Tourist Review, 44(1), 3-7. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb058009
  25. Chu, R. K. and T. Choi (2000), "An Importance-Performance Analysis of Hotel Selection Factors in the Hong Kong Hotel Industry: A Comparison of Business and Leisure Travellers", Tourism Management, 21(4), 363-377. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(99)00070-9
  26. Court, B. and R. A. Lupton (1997), "Customer Portfolio Development: Modeling Destination Adopters, Inactives, and Rejecters", Journal of Travel Research, 36(1), 35-43. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759703600106
  27. Crompton, J. L. (1979), "Motivations for Pleasure Vacation", Annals of Tourism Research, 6(4), 408-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(79)90004-5
  28. Dabija, D. C., R. Babut, V. Dinu and M. I. Lugojan (2017), "Cross-Generational Analysis of Information Searching based on Social Media in Romania", Transformations in Business & Economics, 16(2), 248-270.
  29. Dabija, D. C., B. M. Bejan and N. Tipi (2018), "Generation X Versus Millennials Communication Behaviour on Social Media When Purchasing Food Versus Tourist Services", E+ M Ekonomie a Management, 21(1), 191-205. https://doi.org/10.15240/tul/001/2018-1-013
  30. Dahl, D. W., H. Honea and R. V. Manchanda (2005), "Three Rs of Interpersonal Consumer Guilt: Relationship, Reciprocity, Reparation", Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15(4), 307-315. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp1504_5
  31. Davis, A. and D. Khazanchi (2008), "An Empirical Study of Online Word of Mouth as a Predictor for Multi-Product Category E-Commerce Sales", Electronic Markets, 18(2), 130-141. https://doi.org/10.1080/10196780802044776
  32. Emmons, R. A. and A. Mishra (2011), "Why Gratitude Enhances Well-Being: What We Know, What We Need to Know". In K. M. Sheldon, T. B. Kashdan and M. F. Steger (Eds.), Designing Positive Psychology: Taking Stock and Moving Forward, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 248-262.
  33. Epura, G., B. Tescatiu, R. D. Todor and K. A. Sasu (2017), "Responsible Consumption-Source of Competitive Advantages and Solution for Tourist Protection", Amfiteatru Economic Journal, 19(45), 447-462.
  34. Faulkner, B. (2013), "Towards a Framework for Tourism Disaster Management". In J. Wilks and S. J. Page (Eds.), Managing Tourist Health and Safety in the New Millennium, London, UK: Routledge, 175-196.
  35. Froh, J. J., G. Bono and R. Emmons (2010), "Being Grateful is Beyond Good Manners: Gratitude and Motivation to Contribute to Society Among Early Adolescents", Motivation and Emotion, 34(2), 144-157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-010-9163-z
  36. George, B. P. and B. P. George (2004), "Past Visits and the Intention to Revisit a Destination: Place Attachment as the Mediator and Novelty Seeking as the Moderator", Journal of Tourism Studies, 15(2), 51-66.
  37. Hahm, J. J. and K. Severt (2018), "Importance of Destination Marketing on Image and Familiarity", Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, 1(1), 37-53. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-10-2017-0002
  38. Hayes, A. F. (2017), Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach, New York, NY: Guilford publications.
  39. Hennig-Thurau, T., K. P. Gwinner, G. Walsh and D. D. Gremler (2004), "Electronic Word-of-Mouth via Consumer-Opinion Platforms: What Motivates Consumers to Articulate Themselves on the Internet?", Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18(1), 38-52. https://doi.org/10.1002/dir.10073
  40. Hosany, S. and G. Prayag (2013), "Patterns of Tourists' Emotional Responses, Satisfaction, and Intention to Recommend", Journal of Business Research, 66(6), 730-737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.09.011
  41. Hui, T. K., D. Wan and A. Ho (2007), "Tourists' Satisfaction, Recommendation and Revisiting Singapore", Tourism Management, 28(4), 965-975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.08.008
  42. Jalilvand, M. R. and A. Heidari (2017), "Comparing Face-to-Face and Electronic Word-of-Mouth in Destination Image Formation: The Case of Iran", Information Technology & People, 30(4), 710-735. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-09-2016-0204
  43. Jelilov, G., P. T. Iorember, O. Usman and P. M. Yua (2020), "Testing the Nexus Between Stock Market Returns and Inflation in Nigeria: Does the Effect of COVID-19 Pandemic Matter?", Journal of Public Affairs, 20(4), e2289.
  44. Jeong, Chul, S. Holland, S. H. Jun and H. Gibson (2012), "Enhancing Destination Image Through Travel Website Information", International Journal of Tourism Research, 14(1), 16-27. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.827
  45. Kani, Y., Y. A. Aziz, M. Sambasivan and J. Bojei (2017), "Antecedents and Outcomes of Destination Image of Malaysia", Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 32, 89-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2017.05.001
  46. Kaur, A., A. Chauhan, A. and Y. Medury (2016), "Destination Image of Indian Tourism Destinations: An Evaluation Using Correspondence Analysis", Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 28(3), 499-524. https://doi.org/10.1108/APJML-05-2015-0074
  47. Khan, M. J., S. Chelliah and S. Ahmed (2017), "Factors Influencing Destination Image and Visit Intention Among Young Women Travellers: Role of Travel Motivation, Perceived Risks, and Travel Constraints", Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 22(11), 1139-1155. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2017.1374985
  48. Kim, Sang-Kyun and Chan-Woo Nam (2016), "Hallyu Revisited: Challenges and Opportunities for the South Korean Tourism", Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 21(5), 524-540. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2015.1068189
  49. King, G. (2002), "Crisis Management & Team Effectiveness: A Closer Examination", Journal of Business Ethics, 41(3), 235-249. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021200514323
  50. Komter, A. E. (2004), "Gratitude and Gift Exchange". In R. A. Emmons and M. E. McCullough (Eds.), The Psychology of Gratitude, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 195-213.
  51. Korea Tourism Organization (2020a), 2018 International Visitor Survey. Available from https://datalab.visitkorea.or.kr/site/portal/ex/bbs/View.do;ksessionid=_JMsYf_gS2fA0ScXPKQx9e_HkRjieg5XCvIbF892.wiws02?cbIdx=1127&bcIdx=14675&pageIndex=1&tgtTypeCd=&searchKey=&searchKey2=&tabFlag=N&subFlag=Y&cateCont=spt05 (accessed June 1, 2022)
  52. Korea Tourism Organization (2020b), Overall Statistics of Foreign Visitor Entry. Available from https://kto.visitkorea.or.kr/kor/ktom/stat/%20stat.kto (accessed June 1, 2022)
  53. Kozak, M. and M. Rimmington (2000), "Tourist Satisfaction with Mallorca, Spain, as an Off-Season Holiday Destination", Journal of Travel Research, 38(3), 260-269. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728750003800308
  54. Kuhzady, S., C. Cakici, H. Olya, B. Mohajer and H. Han (2020), "Couchsurfing Involvement in Non-Profit Peer-to-Peer Accommodations and Its Impact on Destination Image, Familiarity, and Behavioral Intentions", Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 44, 131-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.05.002
  55. Lee, Sang-Jae, Sung-Il Jeon and Do-Young Kim (2011), "The Impact of Tour Quality and Tourist Satisfaction on Tourist Loyalty: The Case of Chinese Tourists in Korea", Tourism Management, 32(5), 1115-1124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.09.016
  56. Leonard, L. N., T. P. Cronan and J. Kreie (2004), "What Influences IT Ethical Behavior Intentions-Planned Behavior, Reasoned Action, Perceived Importance, or Individual Characteristics?", Information & Management, 42(1), 143-158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2003.12.008
  57. Leung, X. Y., B. Bai and K. A. Stahura (2015), "The Marketing Effectiveness of Social Media in the Hotel Industry: A Comparison of Facebook and Twitter", Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 39(2), 147-169.
  58. Li, T. T., F. Liu and G. N. Soutar (2021), "Experiences, Post-Trip Destination Image, Satisfaction and Loyalty: A Study in an Ecotourism Context", Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 19, 1-10.
  59. Line, N. D. and L. Hanks (2016), "The Effects of Environmental and Luxury Beliefs on Intention to Patronize Green Hotels: The Moderating Effect of Destination Image", Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 24(6), 904-925. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1091467
  60. Litvin, S. W., R. E. Goldsmith and B. Pan (2018), "A Retrospective View of Electronic Word-of-Mouth in Hospitality and Tourism Management", International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 30(1), 313-325. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-08-2016-0461
  61. Manhas, P. S., L. A. Manrai and A. K. Manrai (2016), "Role of Tourist Destination Development in Building Its Brand Image: A Conceptual Model", Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Science, 21(40), 25-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jefas.2016.01.001
  62. Marques, C., R. V. da Silva and S. Antova (2021), "Image, Satisfaction, Destination and Product Post-Visit Behaviours: How Do They Relate in Emerging Destinations?", Tourism Management, 85, e104293.
  63. Martin-Santana, J. D., A. Beerli-Palacio and P. A. Nazzareno (2017), "Antecedents and Consequences of Destination Image Gap", Annals of Tourism Research, 62, 13-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2016.11.001
  64. Mathieson, A. and G. Wall (1982), Tourism, Economic, Physical and Social impacts, New York, NY: Longman.
  65. McCullough, M. E., S. D. Kilpatrick, R. A. Emmons and D. B. Larson (2001), "Is Gratitude a Moral Affect?", Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 249-266. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.249
  66. McGonigal, J. (2008), "Why I Love Bees: A Case Study in Collective Intelligence Gaming", The Ecology of Games: Connecting Youth, Games, and Learning, 199-227.
  67. Mengu, S. C., Y. Gucdemir, D. Erturk and S. Canan (2015), "Political Preferences of Generation Y University Student with Regards to Governance and Social Media: A Study on March 2014 Local Elections", Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 174, 791-797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.616
  68. Nazir, M. U., I. Yasin and H. H. Tat (2021), "Destination Image's Mediating Role Between Perceived Risks, Perceived Constraints, and Behavioral Intention", Heliyon, 7(7), e07613.
  69. Nielson (2015), Nielsen Global Trust in Advertising Survey. Available from https://www.nielsen.com/insights/2015/digital-formats-are-among-the-most-trustedadvertising-sources-despite-slow-growth/ (accessed June 1, 2022)
  70. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2020), OECD Tourism Trends and Policies 2020. Available from https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/6e8b663cen/index.html?itemId=/content/component/6e8b663c-en#section-d1e60572 (accessed June 1, 2022)
  71. Oliver, R. L. (1997), Satisfaction: A Behavioral Perspective on the Consumer, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  72. Oppermann, M. (2000), "Tourism Destination Loyalty", Journal of Travel Research, 39(1), 78-84. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728750003900110
  73. Orr, M. G., R. Thrush and D. C. Plaut (2013), "The Theory of Reasoned Action as Parallel Constraint Satisfaction: Towards a Dynamic Computational Model of Health Behavior. PloS one, 8(5), e62490.
  74. Palmatier, R. W., C. B. Jarvis, J. R. Bechkoff and F. R. Kardes (2009), "The Role of Customer Gratitude in Relationship Marketing", Journal of Marketing, 73(5), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.73.5.1
  75. Park, Cheol and Thae-Min Lee (2009), "Information Direction, Website Reputation and eWOM Effect: A Moderating Role of Product Type", Journal of Business Research, 62(1), 61-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.11.017
  76. Pearce, P. L. (2005), Tourist Behaviour: Themes and Conceptual Schemes, Clevedon, UK: Channel View Publications.
  77. Pearson, C. M. and J. A. Clair (1998), "Reframing Crisis Management", Academy of Management Review, 23(1), 59-76. https://doi.org/10.2307/259099
  78. Prayag, G., S. Hosany, B. Muskat and G. Del Chiappa (2017), "Understanding the Relationships Between Tourists' Emotional Experiences, Perceived Overall Image, Satisfaction, and Intention to Recommend", Journal of Travel Research, 56(1), 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287515620567
  79. Raggio, R. D., A. M. Walz, M. B. Godbole and J. A. G. Folse (2014), "Gratitude in Relationship Marketing: Theoretical Development and Directions for Future Research", Marketing Faculty Publications, 48(1), 2-24. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-08-2009-0355
  80. Rao, R. S. (2014), "Emerging Trends in Hospitality and Tourism", International Journal of Research Granthaalayah, 1(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v1.i1.2014.3080
  81. Ratnasari, R. T. and A. Prasetyo (2019), "Recommendation and Repurchase Intention for Health Service Based on Medical Tourism", KnE Social Sciences, 1030-1043.
  82. Ritchie, B. W. (2004), "Chaos, Crises and Disasters: A Strategic Approach to Crisis Management in the Tourism Industry", Tourism Management, 25(6), 669-683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2003.09.004
  83. Sadeh, E., F. Asgari, L. Mousavi and S. Sadeh (2012), "Factors Affecting Tourist Satisfaction and Its Consequences", Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 2(2), 1557-1560.
  84. Schiopu, A. F., A. M. Padurean, M. L. Tala and A. M. Nica (2016), "The Influence of New Technologies on Tourism Consumption Behavior of the Millennials", Amfiteatru Economic Journal, 18(10), 829-846.
  85. Schroeder, T. (1996), "The Relationship of Residents' Image of Their State as a Tourist Destination and Their Support for Tourism", Journal of Travel Research, 34(4), 71-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759603400411
  86. Sheeran, P. (2002), "Intention-Behavior Relations: A Conceptual and Empirical Review", European Review of Social Psychology, 12(1), 1-36. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792772143000003
  87. Sianipar, R., J. M. Situmorang, V. A. Goeltom and K. G. Yulius (2021), "Factors Influencing Tourist Satisfaction and Revisit Intention to Cibuntu Tourist Village During COVID-19 Pandemic", Journal of Tourism and Hospitality, 3(1), 12-24. https://doi.org/10.33830/jelajah.v3i1.1847
  88. Soscia, I. (2007), "Gratitude, Delight, or Guilt: The Role of Consumers' Emotions in Predicting Postconsumption Behaviors", Psychology & Marketing, 24(10), 871-894. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20188
  89. Souiden, N., R. Ladhari and N. E. Chiadmi (2017), "Destination Personality and Destination Image", Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 32, 54-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2017.04.003
  90. Strategic Direction (2015), "Improving Insight on Generation Y Consumers: The Significance of Lifestyle, Gender, and Media Habits", Strategic Direction, 31(4), 22-24. https://doi.org/10.1108/SD-02-2015-0030
  91. Syropoulos, S., H. M. Watkins, A. F. Shariff, S. D. Hodges and E. M. Markowitz (2020), "The Role of Gratitude in Motivating Intergenerational Environmental Stewardship", Journal of Environmental Psychology, 72, 101517.
  92. Tai, C. L., L. C. Chen, C. M. Chang and J. Y. Hong (2012), "The Impact of Individual Characteristics, Personality Traits, Perceived Risk on Young People's Intention to Participate in Overseas Working Holiday", Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 57, 388-395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.1202
  93. Tasci, A. D. and W. C. Gartner (2007), "Destination Image and Its Functional Relationships", Journal of Travel Research, 45(4), 413-425. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287507299569
  94. Tryon, W. (2014), Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychotherapy: Network Principles for a Unified Theory, New York, NY: Academic Press.
  95. Um, Seo-Ho, K. Chon and Young-Hee Ro (2006), "Antecedents of Revisit Intention", Annals of Tourism Research, 33(4), 1141-1158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2006.06.003
  96. United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database (2017), United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database. Available from https://comtrade.un.org/ (accessed June 1, 2022)
  97. United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2020), International Tourism Growth Continues to Outpace the Global Economy. Available from https://www.unwto.org/international-toursim-growth-continues-to-outpace-the-economy (accessed June 1, 2022)
  98. United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2021), World Tourism Barometer. Available from https://www.unwto.org/news/2020-worst-year-in-tourism-history-with-1-billion-fewerinternational-arrivals (accessed June 1, 2022)
  99. Vazquez-Casielles, R., L. Suarez-Alvarez and A. B. del Rio-Lanza (2013), "The Word of Mouth Dynamic: How Positive (and Negative) WOM Drives Purchase Probability: An Analysis of Interpersonal and Non-Interpersonal Factors", Journal of Advertising Research, 53(1), 43-60. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-53-1-043-060
  100. Wen, Z., G. Huimin and R. R. Kavanaugh (2005), "The Impacts of SARS on the Consumer Behaviour of Chinese Domestic Tourists", Current Issues in Tourism, 8(1), 22-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500508668203
  101. Williams, P. and G. N. Soutar (2009), "Value, Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions in an Adventure Tourism Context", Annals of Tourism Research, 36(3), 413-438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2009.02.002
  102. World Bank (2017a), Travel services (% of service exports, BoP). Available from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.GSR.TRVL.ZS?locations=KR (accessed June 1, 2022)
  103. World Bank (2017b), International tourism, receipts (current US$). Available from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.RCPT.CD?locations=KR (accessed June 1, 2022)
  104. World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) (2020), Global Economic Impacts & Trends Report. Available from https://wttc.org/Portals/0/Documents/Reports/2020/Global%20Economic%20Impact%20Trends%202020.pdf?ver=2021-02-25-183118-360 (accessed June 1, 2022)
  105. Wang, X., J. Zhang, C. Gu and F. Zhen (2009), "Examining Antecedents and Consequences of Tourist Satisfaction: A Structural Modeling Approach", Tsinghua Science and Technology, 14(3), 397-406. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1007-0214(09)70057-4
  106. Xia, L. and M. Kukar-Kinney (2013), "Examining the Penalty Resolution Process: Building Loyalty Through Gratitude and Fairness", Journal of Service Research, 16(4), 518-532. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670513481109
  107. Yoo, Chul-Woo, G. L. Sanders and Jung-Hoon Moon (2013), "Exploring the Effect of e-WOM Participation on E-Loyalty in E-commerce", Decision Support Systems, 55(3), 669-678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2013.02.001
  108. Yoon, Yoo-Shik and M. Uysal (2005), "An Examination of the Effects of Motivation and Satisfaction on Destination Loyalty: A Structural Model", Tourism Management, 26(1), 45-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2003.08.016