Acta Via Serica

계명대학교 실크로드연구원 (Academia Via Serica)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Behind and Beyond the Archaeology of the Silk Road: Laboratory Analyses in Eurasia, Some Results, Discussions, and Interpretations for Protohistory and Antiquity

  • Henri-Paul FRANCFORT (CNRS (National Center for Scientific Research), Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres)
  • 투고 : 2023.08.12
  • 심사 : 2023.10.31
  • 발행 : 2023.12.15
PDF 다운로드
⟨ 이전 논문 다음 논문 ⟩

초록

The paper presents some new results illustrating some developments related to the concept of the Silk Road and subsequent methodological reflections. New laboratory results of scientific analyses of plants, minerals, and human remains in combination with more conventional methods of research contribute to a better understanding of the multidirectionality of exchanges in Pre- and Protohistory. Unsuspected long-distance transfers of items, especially of metals (tin) and biological materials (plants, pathogens, etc.) are discovered. Adding ancient DNA and petroglyphs to the vexed question of the Indo-European migrations across Eurasia complexifies the familiar linguistic, historical, and archaeological research landscape. Recent excavations show the impact of the adoption of artistic elements adapted from the Achaemenid arts, far in the steppe world, and up to China. Multidirectional (including North-South lanes) and multidisciplinary approaches leave space and hope for more rigorous scientific modelizations for the archaeology of Eurasia and the Silk Road.

키워드

과제정보

I would like to express my warmest thanks to Michael Frachetti, Benjamin Mutin, and David Sarmiento-Castillo as well as to two anonymous reviewers for their invaluable help in preparing this article. My gratitude goes also to Prof. Kim Tschung-Sun for his invitation to publish in Acta Via Serica, for his suggestions and for his patience during the elaboration of this text. All opinions and mistakes are mine.

참고문헌

  1. Anthony D. W 2007. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: H, Bronze Agе Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton, Oxford: Princeton University Press. 
  2. Aruz, J., A. Farkas, A. Alekseev and E. Korolkova, eds. 2000. The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes. New York, New Haven, London: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Yale University Press. 
  3. Aruz, J., ed. 2003. Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 
  4. Beckwith, Chr. I. 2009. Empires of the Silk Road: A. History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press. 
  5. Beckwith, Chr. I. 2023. The Scythian Empire: Central Eurasia and the birth of the Classical Age from Persia to China. Princeton, Oxford: Princeton University Press. 
  6. Bejsenov, A. Z. 2013. "Die Necropole Taldy 2 in Beziehnung zu den Kulturen der Fruhsakischen Zeit Osteurasiens [The Necropolis of Taldy 2 in Relation to the Cultures of the Early Saka Period of Eurasia]." Unbekanntes Kasachstan. Archaologie im Herzen Asiens. Band II, edited by T. Stollner and Z. Samashev, 595-608. Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum. 
  7. Bentley Jerry H. 1999. "Asia in World History." Education about Asia 4, no. 1 (spring): 5-9. 
  8. Bernard, P. 1976. "A propos des bouterolles de fourreaux achemenides [A propos the bouterolles of the Achaemenid dagger sheaths]." Revue Archeologique (2): 227-246.
  9. Betts, A. V G., M. Vicziany, P. Jia, and Andrea di Castro, eds. 2019. The Cultures of China of Ancient Xinjiang, Western China: Crossroads of the Silk Roads. Oxford: Archaeopress. 
  10. Betts, Alison, Peter Weiming Jia, and John Dodson. 2014. "The origins of Wheat in Chinal and potential pathways for its introduction: A Review." Quaternary International 348 (0): 158-168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.044. 
  11. Boardman, J. 2015. The Greeks in Asia. London: Thames & Hudson. 
  12. Boivin, Nicole, and Michael D. Frachetti. 2018. Globalization in Prehistory: Contact, Exchange, and the 'People Without History'. Cambridge University Press. 
  13. Bopearachchi, O. 2017. "Achaemenids and Mauryans: Emergence of Coins and Plastic Arts in India." India and Iran in the Longue Duree, edited by A. Patel and T. Daryaee, 15-47. Ancient Iran Series. Irvine: UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. 
  14. Boulnois, L. 2001. La Route de la Soie: Dieux, guerriers et marchands [The Silk Road: Gods, Warriors, Merchants]. Geneve: Olizane. 
  15. Brosseder, U. 2011. "Belt Plaques as an Indicator of East-West Relations in the Eurasian Steppe." Xiongnu Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Perspectives of the First Steppe Empire in Inner Asia, edited by U. Brosseder and B.K. Miller, 349-424. Bonn Contributions to Asian Archaeology. Bonn: Vor- und Fruhgeschichtliche Archaologie Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitat Bonn. 
  16. Brosseder, U. 2015. Review of Hickman, Mair, and Renfrew 2014. Accessed August 11, 2023. http://www.sehepunkte.de/2015/07/25981.html. 
  17. Cambon, P, and J.-F. Jarrige, eds. 2006. Afghanistan, les tresors retrouves: Collections du musee national de Kaboul [Afghanistan, the Recovered Treasures: Collections of the Kabul Museum]. Paris: RMN. 
  18. Cheng, Qian, Jinlong Guo, Bo Wang, Jianfeng Cui, Thomas Smith, Julian Henderson, Edward W Faber, Nikolaos Zacharias, Eleni Palamara, and Hongxia Zhao. 2016. "Scientific Analysis of a Glass Vessel and an Eye Bead from the Zhagunluke and the Shanpula Sites from the Overland Southern Line of the Silk Road." Recent Advances in the Scientific Research on Ancient Glass and Glaze 2: 193. 
  19. Chernikov S. S. 1965. Zagadka zolotogo kurgana [The Enigma of the Golden Kurgan]. Moscow: Nauka. 
  20. Chew, Sing C. 2018. "The Southeast Asian Connection in the First Eurasian World Economy 200 BC-AD 500." Comparing Globalizations, 91-117. Berlin: Springer. 
  21. Christian, D. 2000. "Silk Roads or Steppe Roads?: The Silk Roads in World History.'' Journal of World history 11 (1): 1-26.  https://doi.org/10.1353/jwh.2000.0004
  22. Chugunov, K., H. Parzinger, and A. Nagler. 2006. Der Goldschatz von Arzban. Ein Fiirstengrab der Skythenzeit in der siidsibirischen Steppe [The Gold Treasure of Arzhan. A Princely Burial of Scythian Period in the Steppe of South Siberia]. Munich: Schirmer/Mosel. 
  23. Chugunov, K., H. Parzinger, and A. Nagler. 2010. Der skythenzeitliche Furstenkurgan Arzan 2 in Tuva [The Early Scythian Princely Kurgan of Arzan 2 in Tuva]. Archaologie in Eurasien Band 26, Steppenvolker Eurasiens Band 3. Mayence: Verlag Philipp von Zabern. 
  24. Currie, Thomas E, Peter Turchin, Edward Turner, and Sergey Gavrilets. 2020. "Duration of agriculture and distance from the steppe predict the evolution of large-scale hu man societies in Afro-Eurasia." Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 7 (1): 1-8.  https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0492-6
  25. Debaine-Francfort, C. 1990. "Les Saka du Xinjiang avant les Han (266 av;- 220 ap. J.-C.): criteres d'identification [The Sakas of Xinjiang before the Han (266 BC-220 AD): Criteria fo their Identification]." Nomades et sedentaires en Asie centrale. Apports de Parcheologie et de I'etbnologe (Actes du colloque franco-sovietique d'Alma-Ata (Kazakhstan) 17-26 octobre 1987, edited by H.-P Francfort, 81-95. Paris: Editions du CNRS. 
  26. Debaine-Francfort, C., and I. Abduressul, eds. 2001. Keriya, memoires d'un fleuve. Archeologie et civilisation des oasis du Taklamakan [Keriya, Memory of a River. Archaeology and Civilization of the Taklamanak Oases]. Paris: Editions Findakly. 
  27. Demoule, J. P. 2014. "Mais ou sont passes les Indo-Europeens? Le mythe d'origine de 1'Occident [The Indo-Europeans. Archaeology, Language, Race, and the Search for the Origins of the West]'' La Librairie du XXI' siecle. Paris: Seuil. 
  28. Dong, GuangHui, Yi Shi Yang, Jian Ye Han, Hui Wang, and Fa Hu Chen. 2017. "'Exploring the history of cultural exchange in prehistoric Eurasia from the perspectives of crop diffusion and consumption?? Science China Earth Sciences 60: 1110-1123.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-016-9037-x
  29. Doumani Dupuy, Paula N. 2021. "The unexpected ancestry of Inner Asian mummies." Nature 599: 204-206.  https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-02872-1
  30. Doumani Dupuy, Paula N., Robert N. Spengler, and Michael D. Frachetti. 2017. "Eurasian textiles: Case studies in exchange during the incipient and later Silk Road periods." Quaternary International 468: 228-239. 
  31. Durand, J.-M. 2018. "Le commerce a longue distance de mari d'apres les textes du regne de Zimri-Lim [Long Distance Trade of Mari after the Texts of Zimri-Lim's Reign].'' Pasipbae XIII: 69-87. 
  32. Fernandez-Gotz, Manuel, and Dirk Krausse. 2017. Eurasia at the Dawn of History: Urbanization and Social Change. Cambridge University Press. 
  33. Fouache, Е., H.-P. Francfort, C. Cosandey, and Ch. Adie. 2015. "La crise d'aridite climatique de la fin du 3eme millenaire av J.-C., a la lumiere des contextes geomorphologiques de 3 sites d'lran Oriental (Bam, Tepe Damghani, Jiroft) [The climatic aridity crisis of the end of the 3rd millennium ВС. BC, in the light of the geomorphological contexts of 3 sites in Eastern Iran (Bam, Tepe Damghani, Jiroft)]." Greater Khorasan. History, Geography, Archaeology, and Material Culture, edited by R. Rante, 27-37. Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East. Berlin, Munich, Boston: De Gruyter. 
  34. Foucher, A. 1942-1947. La vieille route de l'Inde de Bactres a Taxila [The old road of India from Bactra to Taxila]. Vol. I. MDAEA. Paris. 
  35. Frachetti, M. 2009. "Differentiated Landscapes and Non-Uniform Complexity among Bronze Age Societies of the Eurasian Steppe." Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia: Monuments, Metals, and Mobility, edited by В. K. Hanks and K. M. Linduff, 19-46. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
  36. Frachetti, M. 2014. "Seeds for the Soul. Ideology and Diffusion of Domesticated Grains across Inner Asia." Reconfiguring the Silk Road: Ne씨 Research on East-West Exchange in Antiquity, edited by J. Hickman, V Mair, and Colin Renfrew 41-53. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 
  37. Francfort, H.-P. 1990. "Une proto-route de la soie a-t-elle existe aux 2e-1er millenaires? [Did a proto-Silk Road exist in the 2nd-1st millennia?]" Nomades et sedentaires en Asie centrale: Apports de l'archeologie et de l'ethnologe, edited by H.-P Francfort, 121-129. Paris: CNRS. 
  38. Francfort, H.-P. 1994. "Les petroglyphes d'Asie centrale et la route de la soie [Central Asian petroglyphs and the Silk Road]'' Les Routes de la soie: Patrimoine commun, identitesplurielles, 35-52. Paris: UNESCO. 
  39. Francfort, H.-P. 2001. "Des cousins des Scythes [Cousins of the Scythians?]" Keriya, memoires d'un fleuve: Archeologiе et civilisation des oasis du Taklamakan, edited by C. Debaine-Francfort, 156-158. Paris: Editions Findakly. 
  40. Francfort, H.-P. 2002. "Images du char en Eurasie orientale des origines a la fin du 1er millenaire av. J.-C [Images of the chariot in Eastern Eurasia from the origins to the end of the 1st millennium BC]." Pervobytnaja arkheologija. Chelovek i iskusstvo. Sbornik nauchnykh trudov, posvjashchennyj 70-letju po dnja rozhdenija Jakova Abramovicha Shera, edited by V. V. Bobrov, 80-89. Novosibirsk. 
  41. Francfort, H.-P. 2005. "La civilisation de l'Oxus et les Indo-Iraniens et Indo-Aryens [The Oxus Civilization and the Indo-Iranians and Indo-Aryans].'' Aryas, Aryens et Iraniens en Asie Centrale, edited by G. Fussman, J. Kellens, H.-R Francfort, and X. Tremblay 253-328. College de France, Publications de l'Institut de Civilisation Indienne. Paris: Diffusion de Boccard. 
  42. Francfort, H.-P. 2007. "Choix des nomades et choix des sedentaires en Asie Centrale dans l'adaptation de themes et de motifs des arts de la Perse achemenide [Choice of nomads and choice of sedentary people in Central Asia in the adaptation of themes and motifs from the arts of Achaemenid Persia].'' Mobilites, immobilismes: L'emprunt et son refus, edited by P. Rouillard, C. Perles, and E. Grimaud, 267-282. Paris: De Boccard. 
  43. Francfort, H.-P. 2009. "La mort chez les Scythes de l'Europe a l'Altai: la culture de Pazyryk et ses predecesseurs a la lumiere de quelques decouvertes recentes [Death among the Scythians from Europe to Altai: the culture of Pazyryk and his predecessors in the light of some recent discoveries]." Sepultures et societes: Du Neolithique a l'Histoire. Seminaire du College de France, edited by J. Guilaine, 153-192. Collection des Hesperides. Paris: Errance. 
  44. Francfort, H.-P. 2013. L'art oublie des lapidaires de la Bactriane aux epoques achemenide et hellenistique [The forgotten art of the lapidaries in Bactria in the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Preriods]. Edited by P Briant. Vol. 17. Persika. Paris: De Boccard. 
  45. Francfort, H.-P. 2016a. "Flying in Steppe: Pictures of Bird Hybrids in the Arts of Ancient Central Asia." Altai Among the Eurasian Antiquities, edited by A. P. Derevyanko and V. I. Molodin, 185-200. Novosibirsk: IAE SB RAS Publishing. 
  46. Francfort, H.-P. 2016b. "How the Twins Met: Indus and Oxus Bronze Age Civilizations in Eastern Bactria. Shortughai Revisited Forty Years Later." To the Memory of Professor Victor Sarianidi, edited by N. A. Dubova, E.V. Antonova, P.M. Kozhin, M.F. Kosarev, R.G. Muradov, R.M. Sataev, and A.A. Tishkin, 461-475. Transactions of Margiana Archaeological Expedition. Moscow: N.N. Miklukho-Maklay Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of Russian Academy of Sciences, Margiana Archaeological Expedition, Altay State University. 
  47. Francfort, H.-P. 2016c. "L'aigle qui marche et le cerf qui vole: images d'hybrides ornithologiques en Asie centrale ancienne [The walking eagle and the flying deer: images of ornithological hybrids in ancient Central Asia]." L'bomme-animal dans les arts visuels Image et creatures hybrides dans le temps et dans l'espace, edited by P. Linant de Bellefonds and A. Rouveret. Colloque Transimages. Paris: Les Belles Lettres/ Presses Universitaires de Paris Nanterre. 
  48. Francfort, H.-P. 2018. "Les archeologues, le climat et l'environnement [The archaeologists, the climate and the environment]" Colloque Vie et climat d'Hesiode a Montesquieu, edited by J. Jouanna, Chr. Robin and M. Zink, 205-245. Cahiers de la villa "Kerylos." Paris: Diffusion de Boccard. 
  49. Francfort, H.-P. 2019. "Shifting Exchange Patterns During the Bronze and Iron Ages between China and the West in Eurasia." The Cultures of Ancient Xinjiang, Western China: Crossroads of the Silk Koads, edited by A. V. G. Betts, M. Vicziany, Peter Jia, and Angelo Andrea Di Castro, 97-112. Oxford: Archaeopress. 
  50. Francfort, H.-P. 2020a. "Scythians, Persians, Greeks, and Horses: Reflections on Art, Culture Power, and Empires in the Light of Frozen Burials and Other Excavations." Masters of the Steppe: The Impact of the Scythians and Later Nomad Societies of Eurasia. Proceedings of a conference held at the British Museum, 27-29 October 2017, edited by S. J. Simpson and S.V. Pankova, 134-155. London, Oxford: British Museum, Archaeopress. 
  51. Francfort, H.-P. 2020b. "Sur quelques vestiges et indices nouveaux de l'hellenisme dans les arts entre la Bactriane et le Gandhara (130 av; J.-C.-100 apr. J.-C. environ) [About some remains and clues of Hellenism in the Arts between Bactria and Gandhara (ca. 130 BC - 100 AD]." Journal des Savants (janvier-juin): 3-114. 
  52. Francfort, H.-P. 2021. "Sarazm in Contemporary Scholarship. An Exceptional Long Distance Attractiveness in Late IVth Mid III mill. B.C." Sarazm 5500, edited by S. G. Bobomulloev and В. T. Koilova, 5-24. Dushanbe. 
  53. Francfort, H.-P. 2022. "Aux marches orientales de la Bactriane antique. Nouvelles perspectives [In the frontiers of Eastern Bactria. New persoectives]." Comptes-rendus des seances de l'Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres 2020 (janvier-mars): 97-146. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-03096528. 
  54. Francfort, H.-R avec des contributions de, Ch. Boisset, L. Buchet, J. Desse, J.-C. ЕсЬаlliег, A. Kermorvant, and G. Willcox. 1989. Fouilles de Shortughai: recherches sur I'Asie centrale protohistorique. [Excavations of Shortughai: Researches on Protohistoric Central Asia] Vol. 2. Memoires de la Mission Archeologique Franpise en Asie centrale. Paris: Diffusion de Boccard. 
  55. Francfort, H.-P, G. Ligabue, and Z. S. Samashev. 1998. "Decouverte d'une tombe gelee d'epoque scythe (IVe s. av; J.-C.) a Berel' dans l'Altai (Kazakhstan oriental) [Discovery of a frozen burial of Scythian Period (4th century BC) in the Altay (Eastern Kazakhstan)] У CRAI 142 (IV, novembre-decembre): 1165-1175.  https://doi.org/10.3406/crai.1998.15946
  56. Francfort, H.-P, G. Ligabue, and Z. S. Samashev. 2000. "La fouille d'un kourgane scythe gele du IVe siecle av notre ere a Berel' dans L'Altai (Kazakhstan) [Excavation of a frozen Scythian kurgan of 4th century BC in the Altay (Kazakhstan)].'' CRAI: 775-806. 
  57. Francfort, H.-P., and A. Parpola. 2022. "Shortughai, a Bactrian Bronze Age Site of the Indus and Oxus Civilizations." Corpus Of Indus Seals And Inscriptions, edited by Asko Parpola and Petteri Koskikallio, 509-523. Suomalaisen Tiedeakatemian Toimituksia Annales Academics Scientiarum Fennicae Humaniora 386, lxxviii-lxxxi. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia. 
  58. Francfort, H.-P., and Z. Samashev; 2002. "Scythian Steeds." Archaeology 55, no. 3 (May/June). 
  59. Fussman, G., J. Kellens, H.-P. Francfort, and X. Tremblay. 2005. Aryas, Aryens et Iraniens en Asie Centrale [Aryas, Aryans and Iranians in Central Asia]. Vol. 72. College de France. Publications de I'lnstitut de Civilisation Indienne. Paris: Diffusion de Boccard. 
  60. Garner, J. 2013. Das Zinn der Bronzezeit in Mittelasien II. Die montanarchaologische Forschungen an den Zinnlagerstatten [The tin of the Bronze Age in Central Asia II. Mining archaeological research on the tin deposits]. Vol. 12. Archaologie in Iran und Turan. Berlin, Bochum: DAI Eurasien Abteilung, Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum Forschungsbereich Montanarchaologie. 
  61. Garner, J. 2015. "Bronze Age Tin Mines in Central Asia." Arcbaeometallurgy in Europe III. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum. June 29 - July 1, 2011, edited by Andreas Hauptmann and Diana Modarressi-Tehrani, 135-143. Der Anschnitt, Zeitschrift fur Kunst und Kultur im Bergbau. Bochum: Veroffentlichungen aus dem Deutschen Bergbau-Museum Bochum. 
  62. Grinin, Leonid and Andrey Korotayev. 2018. "Origins of Globalization in the Framework of the Afroeurasian World-System History." Comparing Globalizations, 37-70. Berlin: Springer. 
  63. Grjaznov, M. R. 1984. Der Grosskurgan von Arzan in Tuva, Siidsibirien [The Grand Curgan of Arzan in Tuva, southern Siberia]. vol. 23. Mat. zur Allgemeinen und Vergleicbenden Archdologie, Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck. 
  64. Haak, Wolfgang, Iosif Lazaridis, Nick Patterson, Nadin Rohland, Swapan Маlliсk, Bastien Llamas, Guido Brandt, Susanne Nordenfelt, Eadaoin Harney, Kristin Stewardson, Qiaomei Fu, Alissa Mittnik, Eszter Banffy, Christos Economou, Michael Francken, Susanne Friederich, Rafael Garrido Pena, Fredrik Hallgren, Valery Khartanovich, Aleksandr Khokhlov, Michael Kunst, Pavel Kuznetsov, Harald Meller, Oleg Mochalov, Vayacheslav Moiseyev, Nicole Nicklisch, Sandra L. Pichler, Roberto Risch, Manuel A. Rojo Guerra, Christina Roth, Anna Szecsenyi-Nagy, Joachim Wahl, Matthias Meyer, Johannes Krause, Dorcas Brown, David Anthony, Alan Cooper, Kurt Werner Alt, and David Reich. 2015. "Massive migration from the steppe is a source for Indo-European languages in Europe." Mature 522: 207-211. https://doi.org/10.1101/013433. 
  65. Hansen, Valerie. 2017. The Silk Road: A. New History with Documents with Coverage of the Mongols and Marco Polo. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
  66. Haudry, J. 1981. Les Indo-Europeens [The Indo-Europeans]. Que Sais-Je. Paris: PUF. 
  67. Hauptmann, Andreas, Sabine Klein, Paola Paoletti, Richard Zettler, and Moritz Jansen. 2018. "Types of Gold, Types of Silver: The Composition of Precious Metal Artifacts Found in the Royal Tombs of Ur, Mesopotamia." Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archaologie 108 (1): 100-131.  https://doi.org/10.1515/za-2018-0007
  68. Henderson, J, Chenery, Kroger, and Faber. 2016. "Glass Provenance along the Silk Road: The Use of Trace Element Analysis." Recent Advances in the Scientific Research on Ancient Glass and Giaze 2: 17. 
  69. Hickman, J., V. Mair, and Colin Renfrew 2014. Reconfiguring the Silk Road: New Research on East-West Exchange in Antiquity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 
  70. Hildebrandt, Berit. 2017. Silk: Trade & Exchange along the Silk Roads between Rome and China in Antiquity. Oxford: Oxbow Books Limited. 
  71. Hoisaeter, Tomas Larsen. 2017. "Polities and Nomads: The Emergence of the Silk Road Exchange in the Tarim Basin Region during Late Prehistory (2000-400 BCE)." bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 80 (2): 339-363.  https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X17000507
  72. Huang, Yunshi, Zhenhua Deng, Hassan Fazeli Nashli, Dorian Q. Fuller, Xiaohong Wu, and Mojtaba Safari. 2023. "The Early Adoption of East Asian Crops in West Asia: Rice and Broomcorn Millet in Northern Iran." Antiquity 97 (393): 674-689. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2023.42. 
  73. Jablonskij, L. T.,and D. V. Meshcherjakov 2007. "Raskopki 'carskogo' kurgana v Filippovke (predvatitel'noe soobshchenie) [Excavations of a 'Royal' kurgan at Filippovka (preliminary report)]." Ross. Arkh. (2): 55-62. 
  74. Jansen, Moritz, Sonja Aulbach, Andreas Hauptmann, Heidi E. Hofer, Sabine Klein, Michael Kruger, and Richard L. Zettler. 2016. "Platinum group placer minerals in ancient gold artifacts - Geochemistry and osmium isotopes of inclusions in Early Bronze Age gold from Ur/Mesopotamia." Journal of Archaeological Science 68: 12-23.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2016.02.004. 
  75. Jarrige, J.-F., and M. Santoni. 1979. Fouilles de Pirak [Pirak Excavations]. Vol. 2. Fouilles du Pakistan. Paris: Klincksieck. 
  76. Jeong, Choongwon, Ke Wang, Shevan Wilkin, William Timothy Treal Taylor, Bryan K Miller, Jan H Bemmann, Raphaela Stahl, Chelsea Chiovelli, Florian Knolle, and Sodnom Ulziibayar. 2020. "A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe." Cell 183 (4): 890-904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015. 
  77. Kohl, Ph. L. 2007. The Making of Bronze Age Eurasia. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
  78. Krakauer, David C, John Lewis Gaddis, and Kenneth Pomeranz. 2017. History, Big History, & Metahistory. Sante Fe: SFI Press. 
  79. Kristiansen, Kristian, Guus Kroonen, and Eske Willerslev, eds. 2023. The Indo-European Puzzle Revisited: Integrating Archaeology, Genetics, and linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
  80. Kuz'mina, Е. E. 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. Edited by A. Lubotsky. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series. Vol. 3. Leyden, Boston: Brill. 
  81. Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. 2002. "Archaeology and Language: The Indo-Iranians." Current Anthropology 43 (1): 63-88. 
  82. Lazaridis, Iosif, Songul Alpaslan-Roodenberg, Ayse Acar, Aysen Acikkol, Anagnostis Agelarakis, Levon Aghikyan, Ugur Akyuz, Desislava Andreeva, Gojko Andrijasevic, and Dragana Antonovic. 2022. "The Genetic History of the Southern Arc: A Bridge between West Asia and Europe." Science 377 (6609): https://wwwscience.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm4247. 
  83. Li, Zhi, Yaning Chen, Yang Wang, and Weihong Li. 2016. "Drought promoted the disappearance of civilizations along the ancient Silk Road." Environmental Earth Sciences 75 (14): 1116. 
  84. Librado, Pablo, and Ludovic Orlando. 2021. "The origins and spread of domestic horses from the Western Eurasian steppes." Nature 598: 634-640.  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04018-9
  85. Ling, Johan, Richard J Chacon, and Kristian Kristiansen, eds. 2022. Trade before Civilization: Long Distance Exchange and the Rise of Social Complexity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
  86. Lu, Qin-Qin, Julian Henderson, Yongqiang Wang, and Binghua Wang. 2021. "Natron glass beads reveal proto-Silk Road between the Mediterranean and China in the 1st millennium BCE." Scientific Reports 11 (1): 3537. 
  87. Lubo-Lesnichenko, E. I., 1994. Kitaj na shelkovom puti. Shelk i vneshnie svjazi drevnego i rannesrednevekovogo Kitaja [China on the Silk Road. Silk and External Relations of China during the Early Middle Age]. Moscow: Nauka. 
  88. Lubotsky, A. 2023. "Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Wagon Terminology and the Date of the Indo-Iranian Split." The Indo-European Puzzle Revisited: Integrating Archaeology, Genetics, and 'Linguistics, edited by Kristian Kristiansen, Guus Kroonen, and Eske Willerslv, 257-262. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
  89. Mair, V. H., ed. 1998. The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern Central Asia. 2 vols. Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph Number Twenty-Six. Philadelphia: The Institute for the Study of Man, The University of Pennsylvania Museum Publications. 
  90. Mair, V H., and J. R. Mallory. 2000. The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. London: Thames and Hudson. 
  91. Mallory J. P. 1991. In Search of the Indo-Europeans: language, Archaeologу, and Myth. London: Thames and Hudson. 
  92. Mallory J. P. 1998. "A European Perspective on Indo-Europeans in Asia." The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern Central Asia, edited by V. H. Mair, 175-201. Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph Number Twenty-Six. Philadelphia: The Institute for the Study of Man, The University of Pennsylvania Museum Publications. 
  93. Mallory J. P. 2002a. "Archaeological Models and Asian Indo-Europeans." Proceedings of the British Academy 116: 19-42. 
  94. Mallory J. P. 2002b. "The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. "Journal of Indo-European Studies 30 (3-4): 273-274. 
  95. Michel, C. 2001. Correspondance des marchands de Kanish au debut du IIe millenaire avant J.-C. [Letters of the Kanish Merchants at the Beginning of the 2nd mill. ВС]. Litteratures anciennes du Proche-Orient. Paris: Cerf. 
  96. Miller, Bryan K, and Ursula Brosseder. 2017. "Global Dynamics in Local Processes of Iron Age Inner Asia." The Rutledge Handbook of Archaeology and Globalization, edited by Tamar Hodos, 470-87. London: Routledge. 
  97. Morris, Ian. 2013. The Measure of Civilization: How Social Development Decides the Fate of Nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 
  98. Morris, Ian. 2018. "Peter Turchin. Ultrasociety: How 10,000 Years of War made Humans the Greatest Cooperators on Earth." Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture 1 (2): 153-156. 
  99. Mutin, B., and A. Razzokov 2014. "'Contacts across the Hindu Kush in the Bronze Age: Additional Insights from Sarazm - Soundings 11-11A (Tajikistan)." Archaologische Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan 46: 123-147. 
  100. Narasimhan, Vagheesh M, Nick J Patterson, Priya Moorjani, Iosif Lazaridis, Mark Lipson, Swapan Mallick, Nadin Rohland, Rebecca Bernardos, Alexander M. Kim, and Nathan Nakatsuka. 2018. "The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia." bioRxiv. 292581. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/early/2018/03/31/292581. 
  101. Narasimhan, Vagheesh M, Nick Patterson, Priya Moorjani, Nadin Rohland, Rebecca Bernardos, Swapan Маlliсk, Iosif Lazaridis, Nathan Nakatsuka, Inigo Olalde, and Mark Lipson. 2019. "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia." Science 365 (6457): https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487. 
  102. Neelis, J. 2006. "La Vieille Roufe Reconsidered: Alternative Paths for Early Transmission of Buddhism Beyond the Borderlands of South Asia." Bulletin of the Asia Institute 16 (2002): 143-164. 
  103. Nickel, Lukas. 2021. "China and Bactria during the Reign of Emperor Wu in Written Tradition and in Archaeology." The Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek World, edited by R. Mairs, 106-124. London, New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. 
  104. Ol'khovskij, V. S., and G. L. Evdokimov. 1994. Skifskie izvajanija VII-II v.v. do n.e. [Scythian Steles 7th-2nd century ВС]. Moscow 
  105. Pankova, S., and S. J. Simpson, eds. 2020. Masters of the Steppe: The Impact of the Scythians and Later Nomad Societies of Eurasia. Oxford: British Museum, Archaeopress. 
  106. Parpola, A. 1999. "The Formation of the Aryan Branch of Indo-European." Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts, languages and Texts, 180-207. London: Routledge. 
  107. Parpola, A. 2002. "Pre-Proto-Iranians of Afghanistan as Initiators of Sakta Tantrism: On the Scythian/Saka Affiliation of the Dasas, Nuristanis, and Magadhans." Iranica Antiqua XXXVII: 233-324.  https://doi.org/10.2143/IA.37.0.126
  108. Parpola, A. 2015. The Roofs of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. 
  109. Parpola, A. 2022. "Formation of the Indo-Iranian Languages: Locations and Dates According to Archaeological Evidence." Indian Linguistic Studies in Honor of George Cardona, edited by P. M. Scharf, 1-83. Vol. 2. Historical Linguistics, Vedic, etc. Providence: The Sanskrit Library. 
  110. Parzinger, Hermann. 2008. "The 'Silk Roads' Concept Reconsidered: About Transfers, Transportation and Transcontinental Interactions in Prehistory." The Silk Road 5 (2): 7-15. 
  111. Pirazzoli-t'Serstevens, M. 2007. "Inner Asia and Han China: Borrowings and Representations." New Frontiers in Global Archaeology: Defining China's Ancient Traditions, edited by Th. Lawton, 1-20. Washington: AMS Foundation for the Arts, Sciences and Humanities. 
  112. Powell, Wayne, Michael Frachetti, Cemal Pulak, H. Arthur Bankoff, Gojko Barjamovic, Michael Johnson, Ryan Mathur, Vincent C. Pigott, Michael Price, and K. Aslihan Yener. 2022. "Tin from Uluburun shipwreck shows small-scale commodity exchange fueled continental tin supply across Late Bronze Age Eurasia." Science Advances 8 (48): DOI:10.1126/sciadv.abq3766. 
  113. Rapin, C., M. Kh. Isamiddinov, and M. Khasanov 2001. "La tombe d'une princesse nomade a Koktepe pres de Samarkand [The burial of a nomadic princess at Koktepe near Samarcand].'' Comptes-rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres (janvier-mars): 35-92. 
  114. Rascovan, N., M. Drancourt, and C. Desnues. 2016. "Ancient Yersinia pestis genomes for tracing the origins and spreading of plague past epidemics." Medecine sciences: М/S 32 (8-9): 681. 
  115. Rtveladze, Е. V. 2012. Velikij Indijskij Put'. Iz istorii vazhnejshikh torgovykh dorog Evrazii [The Great Road to India. History of the most important commercial roads of Eurasia]. Saint-Petersbourg: Nestor-Istorija. 
  116. Samashev, Z. 2021a. "Eleke Sazy, kurgan 4." Gold of the Great Steppe, edited by Rebecca Roberts, 69-101. Cambridge: The Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, East Kazakhstan Regional Museum of Local History. 
  117. Samashev, Z. 2021b. "The Illustrious Culture of the Early Nomads in the Kazakh Altai." Gold of the Great Steppe, edited by Rebecca Roberts, 13-67. Cambridge: The Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, East Kazakhstan Regional Museum of Local History. 
  118. Sarianidi, V. 2014. "The Indo-Iranian problem in the light of the latest excavations in Margiana." Studia Orientalia Electronica 94: 417-442. 
  119. Schafer, Е. H. 1985. The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang exotics. Reprint of 1963 ed. Berkeley Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. 
  120. Scheidel, Walter. 2019. Escape from Rome: The Failure of Empire and the Koad to Prosperity. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 
  121. Schiltz, V. 1994. Les Scythes et les nomads des steppes: 8e siecle avant J.-C. 1 er siecle apres J.-C. [The Scythians and the steppe nomads: 8th century BC 1st century AD]. Uunivers des formes. Paris: Gallimard. 
  122. Scott, Ashley, Robert C. Power, Victoria Altmann-Wendling, Michal Artzy, Mario A.S. Martin, Stefanie Eisenmann, Richard Hagan, Domingo C. Salazar-Garcia, Yossi Salmon, Dmitry Yegorov, Ianir Milevski, Israel Finkelstein, Philipp W. Stockhammer, and Christina Warinner. 2020. "Exotic foods reveal contact between South Asia and the Near East during the second millennium BCE." Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences 118 (2): https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2014956117. 
  123. Sher, Ja. A., E. A. Miklashevich, Z. S. Samashev, and O. S. Sovetova. 1987. "Petroglify Zhaltyrak-Tasha [Petroglyphs of Zhaltyrak-Tash].'' Problemy arkheoloacheskikh kul'tur stepej evrazii, edited by A. I. Martynov, 70-78. Kemerovo: Kemerovskij GU. 
  124. Spengler, Robert, Michael Frachetti, Paula Doumani, Lynne Rouse, Barbara Cerasetti, Elissa Bullion, and Alexei Mar'yashev 2014. "Early Agriculture and Crop Transmission among Bronze Age Mobile Pastoralists of Central Eurasia." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281 (1783): 20133382. 
  125. Spyrou, Maria A., Rezeda I Tukhbatova, Chuan-Chao Wang, Aida Andrades Valtuena, Aditya K Lankapalli, Vitaly V. Kondrashin, Victor A. Tsybin, Aleksandr Khokhlov, Denise Kiihnert, and Alexander Herbig. 2018. "Analysis of 3800-year-old Yersinia pestis genomes suggests Bronze Age origin for bubonic plague." Nature Communications 9 (1): 2234. 
  126. Suntsov, V. V., and N. I. Suntsova. 2000. "Ecological Aspects of Evolution of the Plague Microbe Yersinia Pestis and the Genesis of Natural Foci." Biology Bulletin 27 (6): 645-657. 
  127. Tan, Liangcheng, Guanghui Dong, Zhisheng An, R. Lawrence Edwards, Haiming Li, Dong Li, Robert Spengler, Yanjun Cai, Hai Cheng, and Jianghu Lan. 2021. ''Megadrought and Cultural Exchange along the Proto-Silk Road." Science bulletin 66 (6): 603-611.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scib.2020.10.011
  128. Thote, A. 1999. "De quelques conventions picturales. Le char et ses representations aux Ve-IVe slecles avant notre ere [About some pictorial conventions. Chariot representations in the 5th-4th centuries BC].'' Etudes chinoises. Melanges de sinologie offerts a Monsieur Jean-Pierre Dieny XVIII (1-2): 179-220. 
  129. Tosi, M. 1974. "The Lapis Lazuli Trade Across the Iranian Plateau in the 3rd millennium B.C." Miscellanea in onore di Giuseppe Tucci. Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale. 
  130. Treister, M. 2010. ""Achaemenid' and 'Achaemenid-inspired, Goldware and Silverware, Jewellery and Arms and their Imitations to the North of the Achaemenid Empire." Achaemenid Impact in the black Sea Communication of Powers, edited by Nieling J. & Rehm, E. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press: 223-279. 
  131. Trejster, M. Ju., and L. T. Jablonskij, eds. 2012. Vlijanija akhemenidskqj kul'tury v juzhnom Priural'e (V-III vv. do n.e.). Drevnjaja torevtika i juvelirnoe delo v vostochnoj Evrope [Relations of the Achaemenid culture in the Southern Transural (5th-3rd cent. BC). Ancient toreutics and jewellery in Oriental Europe]. Moscow: TAUS. 
  132. Valtuena, Aida Andrades, Gunnar U. Neumann, Maria A. Spyrou, Lyazzat Musralina, Franziska Aron, Arman Beiseno' Andrey B. Belinskiy, Kirsten I. Bos, Alexandra Buzhilova, and Matthias Conrad. 2022. "Stone Age Yersinia pestis genomes shed light on the early evolution, diversity, and ecology of plague." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119 (17): e2116722119. 
  133. Valtuena, Aida Andrades, Alissa Mittnik, Felix M Key, Wolfgang Haak, Raili Allmne, Andrej Belinskij, Mantas Daubaras, Michal Feldman, Rimantas Jankauskas, and Ivor Jankovic. 2017. "The Stone Age Plague and Its Persistence in Eurasia." Current Biology 27 (23): 3683-3691. e8.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.10.025
  134. Van der Beke, Johan. 2023. "About." Book Series: Silk Road Studies. Brepols. Accessed November 5, 2023. https://www.brepols.net/series/srs. 
  135. Vinogradova, N. M., and S. Bobomullaev; 2020. Mogil'nik Farkhor. Pamjatnik epokhi rannej i srednej bronzy v jugo-zapadnom Tadzhikistane [The Cemetery of Farkhor. A site of the ancient and middle Bronze Age in South-Eastern Tajikistan]. Moscow: IV RAN. 
  136. Von Reden, Sitta, ed. 2020. Handbook of Ancient Afro-Eurasian Economies. Vol. 1. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. 
  137. Von Reden, ed. 2022. Handbook of Ancient Afro-Eurasian Economies. Vol. 2. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Oldenbourg. 
  138. Wang, Binghua. 1987. "Recherches historiques preliminaires sur les Saka du Xinjiang ancien [Preliminary historical researches on the Saka of ancient Xinjiang]Arts Asiatiques XLII: 31-44.  https://doi.org/10.3406/arasi.1987.1214
  139. Wang, Hui. 2011. "On the Issues Relevant to the Majiayuan Cemetery in Zhang-jiachuan County." Chinese Archaeology 11 (1): 60-64. 
  140. Wang, Hui., ed. 2014. Xirong yizhen, Majiayuan Zhanguo mudi chutu wenwu [Treasures of the Xirong: Artifacts from the Warring States cemetery at Majiayuan]. Edited by Gansu Sheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo. Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe. 
  141. Wang, Tingting, Dong Wei, Xien Chang, Zhiyong Yu, Xinyu Zhang, Changsui Wang, Yaowu Hu, and Benjamin T. Fuller. 2017. "Tianshanbeilu and the Isotopic Millet Road: Reviewing the Late Neolithic/Bronze Age Radiation of Human Millet Consumption from North China to Europe." National Science Review 6 (5): 1024-1039. 
  142. Weiss, Harvey. 2016. "Global Megadrought, Societal Collapse and Resilience at 4.2-3.9 ka BP Across the Mediterranean and West Asia." Past Global Changes Magazine 24 (2): 62-63.  https://doi.org/10.22498/pages.24.2.62
  143. Witzel, Michael. 2004. "The Rgvedic Religious System and Its Central Asian and Hindukush Antecedents." The Vedas: Texts, Language & Ritual, Proceedings of the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002. Edited by Arlo Griffiths and Jan Е. M. Houben. Leiden: Egbert Forsten and Groningen. 
  144. Witzel, Michael. 2019. "Early "Aryans' and Their Neighbors Outside and Inside India." journal of Biosciences 44 (3): 58. 
  145. Wu, Xiyan, Chao Ning, Felix M. Key, Aida Andrades Valtuena, Aditya Kumar lankapalli, Shizhu Gao, Xuan Yang, Fan Zhang, Linlin Liu, and Zhongzhi Nie. 2021. "A 3,000-year-old, basal S. enterica lineage from Bronze Age Xinjiang suggests spread along the Proto-Silk Road." PLoS Pathogens 17 (9): el009886. 
  146. Wu, Xiaolong. 2013. "Cultural Hybridity and Social Status: Elite Tombs on China's Northern Frontier During the Third Century BC." Antiquity 87 (335): 121-136.  https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00048663
  147. Wu, Xin. 2021. "Central Asia in the Achaemenid period.'' The Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Worlds edited by R. Mairs, 595-618. London, New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. 
  148. Yablonsky, L. T. 2015. "Unusual New Findings At Filippovka-1 Burial Mound 1, Southern Urals1." Archaeology, Ethnology, and Anthropology of Eurasia 43 (2): 97-108. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aeae.2015.09.010. 
  149. Yablonsky, L. T., and M. Yu. Treister. 2019. "New Archaeological Data on Achaemenid Influences in the Southern Urals." Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 25 (1): 59-78.  https://doi.org/10.1163/15700577-12341343
  150. Yang, Jianhua, and K. M. Linduff. 2013. "A contextual explanation for 'Foreign' or 'Steppic' factors exhibited in burials at the Majiayuan cemetery and the opening of the Tianshan Mountain Corridor." Asian Archaeology 1: 73-84. 
  151. Zhang, Fang, Chao Ning, Ashley Scott, Qiaomei Fu, Rasmus Bjorn, Wenying Li, Dong Wei, Wenjun Wang, Linyuan Fan, Idilisi Abuduresule, Xingjun, Ruan Qiurong, Alipujiang Niyazi, Guanghui Dong, Peng Cao, Feng Liu, Qingyan Dai, Xiaotian Feng, Ruowei Yang, Zihua Tang, Pengcheng Ma, Chunxiang Li, Shizhu Gao, Yang Xu, Sihao Wu, Shaoqing Wen, Hong Zhu, Hui Zhou, Martine Robbeets, Vikas Kumar, Johannes Krause, Christina Warinner, Choongwon Jeong, and Yinqiu Cui. 2021. "The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies." Mature 599: 256-261. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7.