The Effect of Changes in Leisure Consumption Culture on the Modern Economy

Abstract

Purpose: Leisure time is an intrinsic part of the work-life balance that enables people to rejuvenate their energy and provides a platform to maintain their health while sustaining their productivity levels. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of changes in leisure consumption culture on the modern economy through various research materials. Research design, data and methodology: To have completeness in published systematic reviews and meta-analyses, the use of the standard Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses checklist is essential and the present research selected this research design. Results: This research figured out that individuals who spend most of their leisure time watching TV have been shown to experience lesser satisfaction in their job designation and less happiness overall and also found that Leukocyte Telomere Length is influenced by the type of leisure an individual engages in. Conclusions: Overall, this research points out that the income effect may provide an inverse relationship between work time and labor in that high income from labor makes an individual less inclined to work to make the same money they made before the increased benefits. It is a narrative that may need further research in finding the principles that govern leisure in the labor force.

1. Introduction

Leisure time is an intrinsic part of the work-life balance that enables people to rejuvenate their energy and provides a platform to maintain their health while sustaining their productivity levels. Leisure involves any activity or event that allows for relaxation or enjoyment, including events like online gaming and outdoor activities like exercising. The economy of any country relies on the productivity of its workforce. A healthy and formidable workforce that assures high productivity ensures that a country's economic productivity maintains an upward trajectory that allows for a higher value for the economy in the global market(Stojanova, Lietavcova, & Vrdoljak Raguž, 2019). It is shown by the US economy, which has a gross domestic product reaching a staggering 20.95 trillion in 2021. Such high production capacity ensures that the country has a strong economy that attracts talent and opportunities. The backbone of such an economy is its workforce. The focus of this paper is on how leisure trends and changes in modern times affect an economy.

Leisure time is known to contain a dual influence on productive labor regarding per capita income. Leisure time has a U-shaped inverted relationship with labor (Montani, Vandenberghe, Khedhaouria, & Courcy, 2020). Once it touches its prime level, leisure provides a compensatory influence on labor and influences the labor work rate positively. However, when leisure time exceeds this threshold value, which is approximately 5813 hours, it reverses its influence on work and can raise negative results on labor productivity. Labor productivity entails the practical work output per labor hour. Labor productivity growth is associated with new technology, human capital, and physical capital. In particular, are human capital aspects like health, education, and social capital. The quality of human capital is indirectly affected by leisure which affects the productivity of labor. Leisure aids individuals to use and enhance their quality economically. Leisure is associated with progressive personal growth through adulthood by expanding awareness through inquiry. It promotes the transformation of the person, which affects economic value.

Higher social cohesion, urban revitalization, and health benefits are linked to recreation and leisure in urban life. Leisure may trigger specific scenarios, including poverty reduction and increased growth in population. Integrated theories on economic disciplines and sociology offer a productive outlook toward understanding the association between leisure time and efficiency. Various variations come with calculating leisure time. The purpose of this study is to study the effects of changes in leisure consumption culture on the modern economy through various research materials to perform an in-depth analysis of the effects of leisure on the modern economy

2. Literature Review

This paper explores the research gap on why changes in leisure activities positively impact workers' productivity and various sectors of a country's economy, including the Tourism and entertainment industry. Leisure has shifted from a philosophical sense of identity and self to a socially designed set of traits, notions, structures, and interpretations (Juniu, 2009). It has moved away from the traditional leisure definition, which links it with the mind's state, choice, and freedom. Leisure, as a contextual notion, arises from the interaction between the surroundings and individuals. It is a social process. The modern technological revolution has also redesigned modern leisure. It has produced new ideas of communication and distance and a satisfying sense that is virtual (Juniu, 2009). Today's definition of leisure is described by social mechanisms, wealth, and technology, which causes commercialism and commodification. Modern lifestyle gives some people more governance freedom in their lives while robs others of such privileges.

World modernization has aided in liberating various economic activities from limitations locally and permitted better utilization of available resources. It has improved communication, transport, and exchange rates. The trend has shifted to an increased focus on fostering leisure in terms of health and physical activity as a lifestyle instrument for self-betterment (Juniu, 2009). It shows that leisure has shifted from a self-care activity emphasizing social interaction, calculation, and pleasure to a self-enhancement activity (Juniu, 2009). It can be seen through individuals who use their vocational time to further their educational prowess or even acquire a new skill they might need to improve their status financially or socially. Modern leisure excludes most traditional leisure activities with no economic significance. Consequently, leisure has transformed into a merchandised commodity of diverse traits that is primarily anchored on the capacity of the individual to purchase these services. It creates some deficiencies and benefits. The following paragraphs will discuss the positive and negative effects that the culture change from traditional to modern leisure ideologies and practices might present on an economy.

Leisure participation changes have affected the accumulation and formation of human capital. Human capital entails the population's quality and refers to all the knowledge and skills people invest in intentionally to improve their competence and quality. Additionally, leisure changes have also improved people's quality of life. Various studies show the relationship between better life quality and leisure activities (Juniu, 2009). Improved life quality will influence economic growth positively. Leisure participation provides a direct influence on the efficiency of a worker through their choice of labor. The following section analyzes the effects of leisure on economic development, efficiency in labor, and human capital. Human capital affects economic growth by contributing to the amount of skill and competence available in a workforce to carry out critical industrial services.

Under the influence of human capital on labor, a person's productivity would improve significantly if they spent more time on education. Education improves competence and skill, a primary human capital pillar. For instance, the researcher Harris (2012) discovered that elite universities' scholarly activity is associated strongly with leisure quality time and long-lasting study activities through relieving tension. There is also a positive correlation between sports and education. Sport is a form of leisure, and a large-scale survey in Finland found that educated people chose to exercise more (Borodulin, Laatikainen, Lahti-Koski, Jousilahti, & Lakka, 2008).

Moreover, research shows that higher educated persons are likely to spend more time exercising than less educated persons. (Mullahy & Robert, 2010). Consequently, various human capital participates in diverse qualities of leisure engagement.

Leisure also affects the design and aggregation of human capital. Despite formal education benefiting enhancement of human capital, it should not be taken for granted that leisure activities and time supply to improving human capital (Chen & Chavalier, 2008). For example, firms that have exercise breaks improve their identity by enhancing the employee's human capital quality (Pichot & Pierre, 2009). An individual's work rate and competency can be enhanced through better leisure consumption. Equally important is that a person's choice of work or leisure can affect the person's status of health (Neanidis, 2012). Human capital has health as a critical factor of its definition.

The notion presented shows that leisure and work are complementary and that leisure events and time may positively influence an individual's health, work rate, and human capital. Persons earning highly per hour work fewer hours, allowing them to allocate more time to leisure activities. Therefore, the higher the leisure time awarded, the more happiness and job satisfaction the individual experiences, which is an economic advantage as the individual is likely to be more productive and work. Moreover, there is a higher likelihood of investing better, which collectively develops the economy.

Under economic growth and leisure time, the focus is on the studies that tackle the amount of time afforded as leisure time in an economy. Empirical research shows a positive association between economic development, participation in leisure, and efficiency (Maguire 2008). A Research study that utilized its audience of 103 provinces in Italy shows that leisure amenities provision positively influenced the region's economic growth between 2001 and 2006. Conversely, Triemer and Rau (2004) investigated the association between working for extra pay and the workers' disposition. The sample size of the study was 126 men and 117 women. They were evaluated over 24 hours utilizing an ambulant monitor and automated diary. The research study concluded that the individuals working overtime had a decreased ability to recover to their optimal productivity level and had a decreased work efficiency owing to less time allocated to leisure (Triemer & Rau, 2004). The lack of efficiency and reduced productivity affects the economic output, which is the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Under efficiency and leisure time, the flow of psychological state has been shown in psychological research to provide happiness to individuals (Norsworthy, Jackson, & Dimmock, 2021). This state usually transpires during leisure time (Stebbins, 2000). Therefore, leisure time improves happiness levels in an individual. Several leisure engagements improve an individual's life quality and work efficiency through happiness generation (Shilling, 2004). Therefore, leisure pursuits may act as workers' compensation. Some studies have stipulated that leisure engagement during and after work may improve workers' job satisfaction and performance. Higher performance means higher output regarding revenue which provides a platform for the government to earn more taxes which can be invested in the economy through infrastructure development and betterment of public services.

Furthermore, the active participation of a country's labor workforce in community activities deemed leisure activities can advance the social capital capability and network of the person, which expands productivity. Social capital may involve the combination of potential and actual resources that are possessed collectively that could benefit the members. However, some limitations exist to the positive influence that leisure has on an individual. For instance, leisure frequency and diversity were not able to effectively influence the efficiency of an individual's working memory.

Table 1: Supporting Previous Studies of Research Gap in the Literature

Academic performance is also a component of economic productivity regarding the technical skills that the labor workers acquire from learning institutions. A study has shown that leisure time for adolescents to young adults positively affects academic performance (Aaltonen, Latvala, Rose, Kujala, Kaprio, & Silventoinen, 2016). Better academic performance for adolescents is linked with improved academic performance. Some studies, including longitudinal and cross-sectional studies which study the effect of physical activity in learning institutions for students 5-18 years of age, showed this relationship (Wei, Qu, & Ma, 2015). The study concluded that the relationship between the two could only be positive or negligible. Therefore, better performance can be improved with the students engaging in more active physical activity.

The compensatory theory also comments on the positive nature between leisure and work. The main idea of the theory, as stated by its author Bammel is that the dominant force in life is work, and leisure is a form of compensation for the excitement and boredom accrue during the period of working (Kong, Hassan, & Bandar, 2020). The theory's traditional hypothesis can be utilized in giving insight into contemporary society's use of leisure as a relaxation technique from their efforts applied to their working time. It also points to the influence of leisure time on productivity and economic rewards for the employees and society.

3. Method of the Research

According to the past study (Moher, Shamseer, Clarke, Ghersi, Liberati, Petticrew, & Stewart, 2015), systematic reviews ought to adhere to a particular protocol that directs data collection and interpretation methods. The PRISMA protocol can be considered a research methodology tailored for use in systematic reviews and meta-analyses involving healthcare interventions. It documents the systematic review methods, and authors can use it as a guideline to develop a priori methodology detailing how they plan to structure, conduct, and report their findings (Moher et al., 2015). This systematic procedure outlines the various topics that researchers conducting these studies ought to use in documenting their reviews and meta-analyses and how to tackle each topic, which is a component of research designs.

Figure 1: Methodology of the Research

3.1. Necessity of Literature Analysis

To have completeness in published systematic reviews and meta-analyses, the use of the standard Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklist is essential. According to the prior research (Page, Moher, & McKenzie, 2022), its adoption will eliminate variation in the content and mode of describing specific aspects of the review. Adherence to the 27-item checklist assists researchers generate comprehensive review reports. A study investigating the impact of reference to PRISMA on the completeness of meta-analyses found that the guideline significantly affects the reporting of meta-analyses. Although only 4% of the studies investigated demonstrated absolute adherence to the guideline, the majority of the meta-analyses making references to PRISMA displayed a higher level of completeness than those that did not mention PRISMA. These findings indicate a high validity of meta-analyses conducted and reported based on the PRISMA criteria. Consequently, the credibility of such publications as high as it captures all aspects of the study, allowing for better interpretation by readers

Implementing guidelines that mandate authors to adhere to the PRISMA guidelines has resulted in improved quality of reports generated. This is reflected in the level of detail in reporting and inclusivity. An analysis of the changes in reporting before and after the implementation of such guidelines revealed that authors improved their reporting when required to use them (Nguyen, Nantharath, & Kang, 2022). The authors found that studies published after mandatory implementation described in detail their research designs, their handling of participants and variables, and were more forthcoming about the potential bias their studies may have had. Similarly, Zhang and Liu (2019) reported that the reporting reviews and meta-analyses improved significantly following the availability of the PRISMA guideline. In the 50 studies analyzed by the authors, aspects such as the search and selection process, description of the results synthesis process, and disclosure of potential bias in studies selected. These aspects put the users in a better position to gauge the validity and applicability of the findings of reviews and meta-analyses.

PRISMA provides researchers with a user-friendly methodology for ensuring the best results in conducting and reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Using this guide results in the generation of publications that can be critically analyzed as they detail the procedures used. Researchers can easily follow the steps outlined in the PRISMA statement to develop a complete report of their work. Moreover, when PRISMA is applied, readers can assess the publication's relevance to their purposes. Such publications comprise all the information required for consideration by decision-makers. Additionally, when researchers apply these protocols and guidelines in the research process, they have a higher confidence level in their work.

3.2. How to Collect Suitable Texts in the Prior Literature

This is followed by a detailed description of the results, including the studies selected using a flow diagram, their characteristics, and a presentation of the individual study results. Following this is a report of the results of the syntheses, investigations, and assessments of the confidence level of results conducted. Then, a discussion of the results illuminating the interpretations drawn, limitations, and implications of the findings is done. Lastly, the authors provide information about the review itself, including registration information, the protocol used, sources of funding, declaration of competing interests, and information on where users can access the review data and materials.

The PRISMA provides researchers with a standardized method for generating protocol and reports for their systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Using this reporting methodology, researchers can ensure their studies' quality, completeness, validity, and reliability. Additionally, users obtain the complete information to decide on the study's relevance and applicability when researchers use PRISMA. Studies have proven that using PRISMA has led to great strides in generating comprehensive, valid, and reliable knowledge that researchers, policymakers, and professionals can apply and replicate (Nguyen et al., 2022).

4. Results

This study aimed to investigate labor efficiency determinants and gauge through comparisons transitionally how leisure activity changes can influence productivity efficiency. Changes in leisure have created deficiencies and divisions within the context of economic prowess due to modern society turning leisure into purchasable merchandise. Individuals with low economic capability are locked out of most recreational activities that can only be purchased through premium payment. The findings show that diverse economies have diverse aggregate leisure time, affecting their labor proficiency differently. For instance, as a first-world country, the USA has more leisure time averages than a developing country like India. Furthermore, the more leisure time afforded in the USA has a more formidable effect on improving labor productivity than the leisure time afforded in a country like China due to their leisure activities of choice (Wei, Qu, & Ma, 2015).

4.1. Factors of Labor Efficiency with Changes in the Leisure Consumption

Furthermore, the more leisure time afforded in the USA has a more formidable effect on improving labor productivity than the leisure time afforded in India (Wei et al., 2015). The difference in labor efficiency may be attributed to three factors which are social capital, human capital, and physical capital. To start with, passive participation in leisure might be a reason for the difference in output in terms of labor efficiency. The citizens of a country that may engage in passive leisure might experience decreased productivity and low levels of energy. For instance, watching television is a type of passive participation in leisure (Lu & Hu, 2005). Individuals who utilize their leisure time watching television or even surfing the internet for non –educational content like watching movies may have reduced energy levels at the end of their leisure time. For instance, individuals who spend most of their leisure time watching TV have been shown to experience lesser satisfaction in their job designation and less happiness overall (Lu & Hu, 2005). A study has also found that Leukocyte Telomere Length (LTL) is influenced by the type of leisure an individual engages in.

4.2. Passive Leisure

The study shows that individuals who engage in passive leisure as a habit in their lives accelerate the aging process by lengthening the LTL (Shadyab, LaMonte, Kooperberg, Reiner, Carty, Manini, & LaCroix, 2017). For instance, a study conducted on the leisure activities of Chinese people shows their heritage inclines toward passive leisure activities (Teh & Tey, 2019). The study findings show that the Chinese may engage in activities that include watching TV, listening to the radio, and playing Mahjong. The tradition is practiced within the older section of the citizens. Also, the working class is more likely to participate in these activities.

Moreover, students in China have solitary, disordered, and passive leisure activities (Wei et al., 2015). Moreover, the country's happiness has not been associated with leisure activities like shopping, exercising, and socializing (Wei, Huang, Stodolska, & Yu, 2015). It is fueled by the Confucianism culture, which underrated leisure, which causes passive leisure engagements. Consequently, labor efficiency is not affected by leisure in the country.

Findings have shown that leisure can have a direct positive impact on the economy. It is attributed to the issue of tourism. Modern society treats leisure as an opportunity to go for an adventure and visit designated tourist destinations to relax and entertain themselves. Due to the modern world being well connected into a 'global village' through modern infrastructure and transport, tourism has become an intricate part of leisure which brings a host of economic effects to countries and states. Leisure tourism directly affects the economy through revenue and economic development. Leisure and business tourism are different in that leisure tourism bring about a causal relationship with the economy.

4.3. Financial Impact of Changed Leisure Consumption on the Economy

4.2.1. Generating revenue and creating jobs

Findings have also found other impacts that leisure has on the economy. Leisure has been expanded to include the entertainment and tourism industry. Thus, leisure generates revenue for the economy through the recreational facilities that humanity uses to utilize their leisure time. Activities that include golfing, rock climbing, nature park walks, and pools offer leisure engagements which attract many people. These business institutions make money which boosts the economic output of a country. The creation of jobs is a benefit that leisure has on the economy through providing work to the programming software experts who are involved in programming gaming application software. Employees in the hospitality industry gain employment opportunities from individuals looking for entertainment and leisure activities (Khan, Bibi, Lyu, Latif, & Lorenzo, 2021).

4.2.2. Lowering cost of health

Leisure also lowers health costs. Leisure activities provide a way to help people rejuvenate the energy that they expend while working. Leisure activities, especially physical activity, provide a range of physical and mental rewards, which include the reduction of the occurrence of disease due to lowering blood pressure, exercise, and improving physical fitness (Mueller, Park, & Mowen, 2019). It helps decrease the money channeled towards providing services and treating various diseases by a government. Mentally it reduces the occurrence of disorders like depression by encouraging socialization and reducing isolation (Teh & Tey, 2019).

4.2.3. Health risks of passive leisure

The situation of China's older people who experience loneliness attributed to the lack of outdoor social activities is detrimental to their health as they are at higher risk of health deterioration and the development of mental disorders, including depression and dementia (Teh & Tey, 2019). China's culture of passive leisure activity is a massive contributor to this problem. In the long term, proper participation of children in sports programs helps them enhance their health and gain denser bones, which may help reduce the insurance premiums, making health savings for the general public (Matthews, Moore, Arem, Cook, Trabert, Håkansson, & Lee, 2020). Increasing tourism is another way that it contributes to the economy.

Change in leisure has allowed tourism to serve as a hub to attract local and international tourists to spend time with their families to make memories. Leisure also attracts new businesses and enhances property value. Urban planning stakeholders and investors are attracted to setting up commercial and residential buildings with a general attraction to the surroundings, like recreational areas. It creates focal points which attract people to live and work there due to employment opportunities created within the environment. Infrastructure growth then follows, which creates revenue and livelihoods for the citizens of a country, boosting the economic capacity. For instance, the company town of Lowell boasts of the Lowell national park and a museum that provides an overview of the industrialization age of the USA nation during the 19th century (Shackel & Palus, 2006).

Table 2: Findings of Previous Literature

Changes in leisure consumption to expand it to an  international scale while providing great tourist destinations locally have allowed for the development of foreign exchange in terms of currencies that support economic growth (Dodds & Butler, 2019). Furthermore, it is essential to note that the growth in popularity of foreign tourist destinations has provided investment opportunities for people to trade stocks of companies in the hospitality industry. For instance, Accor hotels, one of the biggest companies in the tourism industry, are involved in the stock exchange market, providing taxable revenue. Trends in recreation have given rise to companies specializing in providing leisure to people as a business. These companies, in turn, invest in the local and international market, which provides job opportunities for investors to invest in the company.

5. Conclusions and Implications

In conclusion, this paper provides insight into how changes in leisure interpretation and usage have affected the economy, exploring various angles, including academic performance, human capital, economic growth, and social capital. The paper allows the reader to have an in-depth analysis of the linear and inverse relationship between labor productivity and leisure, showcasing different scenarios and countries. It shows how a country's leisure activity culture affects their productivity and resulting lifestyle choices which influence their health. Recreation attracts new ideas to a region which improves the taxable revenue of the region, boosting economic production. The exploration of more fundamental impacts, including tourism and leisure infrastructure development, showcases how pertinent leisure permeates the lives of humanity.

Therefore, this study showcases how countries, corporations, and individuals need to provide better leisure plans for their staff and countries to improve the economic output of their labor force. There also include highlights of how excessive and wrong use of the various leisure activities can degrade the productivity levels of a laborer. Inactive leisure activities are detrimental to better productivity. In addition, inefficient use of leisure time has been shown to negatively impact the individual's happiness and job satisfaction, for instance, watching TV for extended periods while avoiding active social activities like socializing, shopping, or even exercising. It has been demonstrated by China, whose culture and heritage do not associate active leisure activity with satisfaction. Instead, the citizens prefer passive leisure activities that do not provide satisfaction compared to countries like the USA, where more active leisure activities may be preferred. Therefore, we must consider leisure a pertinent issue in the corporate world to ensure that it can be utilized efficiently to maximize output for employees. Consequently, leisure time applied prudently in productive activities that provide relaxation or learning impacts the economy, directly and indirectly, forming an intricate part of the production and economic growth.

 The study implication includes a revamped outlook on leisure as a beneficial aspect to companies who may want to improve their productivity. The work may be a referential material for companies seeking to improve leisure inclusion in their companies. It also offers opportunities for the researchers to explore how leisure might impact the healthiness and longevity of life of individuals, which can influence an economy (Chang, 2009). For instance, better leisure culture in an economy may improve the ability of individuals to work better and maintain productivity even at an old age which avails their experienced expertise affecting the economy positively. The higher the healthiness level of the country's population, the higher the productivity levels.

There are implications involved for future researchers in terms of researching the methodological and hypothetical theories and studies that govern the application of theory into practice on how productivity is affected by leisure and implication of costs of leisure, and how it balances with its advantages. There are also implications for states to invest in providing better leisure for their working population to improve overall life quality through policy changes and initiatives that promote workers' wellbeing. Implications of the study also point to the health determinants that may demand leisure to improve health outcomes for patients. The study provides a basis on how improvements can be made towards providing a better, healthier lifestyle through leisure utilization. Another implication is investigating education and how it influences work and leisure. The first effect may be a positive association between education and the two variables, which involves the substitution effect. It means that a more extensive opportunity cost comes that people who may earn more might be compelled to take less leisure and work more to earn better.

Moreover, the income effect may provide an inverse relationship between work time and labor in that high income from labor makes an individual less inclined to work to make the same money they made before the increased benefits. It is a narrative that may need further research in finding the principles that govern leisure in the labor force. This study proposes that researchers focus on leisure engagements and leisure data traits to ensure they show a practical and hypothetical value for the community dealing with information science and the public that may seek this information (Chang, 2009). The study may also implicate that there are no adverse effects of leisure time given to employees on the economy. Employees' leisure time is underscored by various factors, including the employee's economic status and the firm's policy. However, the hour's workers take for leisure time can negatively impact the company's productivity if they are not appropriately managed. The study focuses on the positive effects of leisure.

6. Limitations of the Research

Some limitations accompany this study. The first limitation involves that it emphasizes one index test. The notion of the effects of changes in leisure consumption on the economy provides only a theoretical review of the hypothesis. It only explores its effects regarding changes to the recreational activities that have influenced the modern economy. It does not include how the culture might have changed due to economic circumstances. The Meta-analyses may have failed to consider the contrasts between alternative indexes, which include culture and government policy. The selection of the studies to be used in the analysis relied on the quality criteria from sources, including Google Scholar. It was usually unclear whether the used criteria were prearranged in a review protocol. Moreover, some of the reviewed literature did not provide satisfactory summaries of the studies included in the research. The demographics of the participants and the test use settings were not reported clearly in some studies.

The study quality evaluation was constraining because the QUADAS and other validated checklists were not applied universally. The operational definitions for the individual items, including the factors that affect the choice of leisure based on individual profession, were not always provided explicitly. These included the lack of mention of the independent and dependent variables when determining the economic effects of cultural changes on leisure-time usage. Statistical heterogeneity, especially with the systematic reviews, was not wholly reported, leaving gaps that are insignificant to the research's authenticity but essential for the implications of research (Cashin, Lee, Lamb, Hopewell, Mansell, Williams, & McAuley, 2019). Lastly, there was the issue that involved the lack of utilization of meta-evaluation model effects randomly. It may make it difficult to make the summary estimates generalizable to future studies. The variation is needed to inform future research.