평가된 자아: 신용평가와 도덕적, 경제적 가치 평가의 외주화

The Rated Self: Credit Rating and the Outsoursing of Human Judgment

  • 이두갑 (서울대학교 과학사 및 과학철학 협동과정)
  • 투고 : 2019.01.30
  • 심사 : 2019.03.06
  • 발행 : 2019.03.31

초록

21세기 빅데이터와 알고리즘, 인공지능의 발달로 점점 더 많은 영역에서 우리의 선택과 판단이 외주화(outsourcing)되고 있다. 그렇다면 통계적 모델과 컴퓨터 분석, 그리고 인공지능과 같은 새로운 기술들이 우리의 평가와 선택 활동들을 대체할수록, 우리의 삶에는, 그리고 우리의 정체성에는 어떠한 변화가 일어나는가? 본 논문은 자본주의 발전 과정에서 인간 자아에 대한 경제적, 도덕적 판단을 수행했던 활동, 즉 신용평가(credit rating)의 등장, 통계화와 자동화, 그리고 알고리즘화까지의 변화를 분석했던 연구들을 살펴보며, 이 과정을 추동했던 경제적, 기술적 요인들을 규명하려 할 것이다. 이를 통해 21세기 인간의 정치적, 사회적 가능성의 조건들, 그리고 자본주의 진화 과정에서 나타난 "평가된 자아"라는 새로운 주체들의 특징과 양상을 살펴볼 것이다. 마지막으로 자본주의적, 기술적 힘의 공간에서 형성된 "평가된 자아"가 어떻게 새로운 해방적 가능성을 이끌어낼 수 있는지 간략히 논의하며, 점차 인간의 판단을 대체하고 외주화하고 있는 인공지능 기술의 사회적 정치적 함의에 대해 논의해 볼 것이다.

As we live a life increasingly mediated by computers, we often outsource our critical judgments to artificial intelligence(AI)-based algorithms. Most of us have become quite dependent upon algorithms: computers are now recommending what we see, what we buy, and who we befriend with. What happens to our lives and identities when we use statistical models, algorithms, AI, to make a decision for us? This paper is a preliminary attempt to chronicle a historical trajectory of judging people's economic and moral worth, namely the history of credit-rating within the context of the history of capitalism. More importantly this paper will critically review the history of credit-rating from its earlier conception to the age of big data and algorithmic evaluation, in order to ask questions about what the political implications of outsourcing our judgments to computer models and artificial intelligence would be. Some of the questions I would like to ask in this paper are: by whom and for what purposes is the computer and artificial intelligence encroached into the area of judging people's economic and moral worth? In what ways does the evolution of capitalism constitute a new mode of judging people's financial and personal identity, namely the rated self? What happens in our self-conception and identity when we are increasingly classified, evaluated, and judged by computer models and artificial intelligence? This paper ends with a brief discussion on the political implications of the outsourcing of human judgment to artificial intelligence, and some of the analytic frameworks for further political actions.

키워드

참고문헌

  1. 오요한 (2018), 알고리즘 조사 활동과 그 제약사항의 설정: 네이버 실시간급상승검색어 알고리즘에 대한 검증 논쟁을 중심으로, 서울대학교 석사학위 논문.
  2. 오요한 & 홍성욱 (2018), 인공지능 알고리즘은 사람을 차별하는가?, 과학기술학 연구, 제18권 (3)호, 153-215쪽.
  3. 이두갑 (2016), 식별되는 자: 위치기반기술, 원격성과 감시의 문제, 그리고 비-장소(non-place), 과학기술학 연구, 제16권 (2)호, 1-31쪽.
  4. Anderson, C. (2008. 6), "The End of Theory: The Data Deluge Makes the Scientific Method Obsolete", Wired.
  5. Beniger, J. R. (1986), The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society, Cambridge: Harvard University Press
  6. Bouk, D. (2017), "The History and Political Economy of Personal Data over the Last Two Centuries in Three Acts", Osiris, Vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 85-106. https://doi.org/10.1086/693400
  7. Bouk, D. (2015), How Our Days Became Numbered: Risk and the Rise of the Statistical Individual, Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press
  8. Bowker, G. C. & Star, S. L. (1999), Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences, MIT Press.
  9. Calder, L. G. (1999), Financing the American Dream: A Cultural History of Consumer Credit, Princeton: Princeton University Press
  10. Capon, N. (1982), "Credit Scoring Systems: A Critical Analysis", Journal of Marketing, Vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 82-91. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224298204600209
  11. Carruthers, B. G. (2013), "From Uncertainty toward Risk: The Case of Credit Ratings", Socio-Economic Review, Vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 525-51. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mws027
  12. Castells, M. (1996), The Rise of the Network Society, Malden: Blackwell Publishers.
  13. Cheney-Lippold, J. (2011), "A New Algorithmic Identity Soft Biopolitics and the Modulation of Control", Theory Culture & Society, Vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 164-81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276411424420
  14. Chopra, S. & White, L. F. (2011), "Artificial Agents and Agency", in Chopra, S. & White, L. F., eds., A, Legal Theory for Autonomous Artificial Agents. University of Michigan Press, pp. 5-28.
  15. Citron, D. K. and Pasquale, F. (2014), "The Scored Society: Due Process for Automated Prediction." Washington Law Review, Vol. 89. no. 1, pp. 1-33.
  16. Cohen, L. (2003), A Consumers' Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America, Vintages Books.
  17. Crary, J. (2013), 24/7: Late Capitalism and the Ends of Sleep, London: Verso.
  18. Dandeker, C. (1990), Surveillance, Power, and Modernity: Bureaucracy and Discipline from 1700 to the Present Day, New York: St. Martin's Press.
  19. Davis, G. F. (2009), Managed by the Markets: How Finance Reshaped America, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  20. Deleuze, G. (1992), "Postscript on the Societies of Control", October, Vol. 59, pp. 3-7.
  21. Dourish, P. (2016), "Algorithms and Their Others: Algorithmic Culture in Context", Big Data & Society. Vol. 3, pp. 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951716665128
  22. Espeland, W. N. & Sauder, M. (2007), "Rankings and Reactivity: How Public Measures Recreate Social Worlds", American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 113, no. 1, pp. 1-40. https://doi.org/10.1086/517897
  23. Eubanks, V. (2018), Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor, St. Martin's Press.
  24. Ewald, F. (1991), "Insurance and Risk", in Cordon C. & Miller P. ed., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality, pp. 197-210, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  25. Federal Trade Commission (2014), Data Brokers: A Call for Transparency and Accountability: A Report of the Federal Trade Commission, https://www.ftc.gov/reports/data-brokers-call-transparency-accountability-report-federal-trade-commission-may-2014
  26. Feher, M. (2009), "Self-Appreciation; or, the Aspirations of Human Capital", Public Culture, Vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 21-41. https://doi.org/10.1215/08992363-2008-019
  27. Feher, M. (2018), Rated Agency: Investee Politics in a Speculative Age. Near Futures, New York: Zone Books.
  28. Feldman, S. (1974), "The Fair Credit Reporting Act: From the Regulators Vantage Point", Santa Clara Law Review, Vol. 14, pp. 459-590.
  29. Foucault, M. (2008), The Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the College de France, 1978-79, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  30. Fourcade, M. & Healy, K. (2013), "Classification Situations: Life-Chances in the Neoliberal Era", Accounting Organizations and Society, Vol. 38, no. 8, pp. 559-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2013.11.002
  31. Fourcade, M. & Healy, K. (2017), "Seeing Like a Market", Socio-Economic Review, Vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 9-29.
  32. Garrett, E. & Vermeule, A. (2006), "Transparency in the Budget Process" (January 2006). USC CLEO Research Paper No. C06-2; USC Law Legal Studies Paper No. C06-2; University of Chicago Law & Economics, Olin Working Paper No. 278. https://ssrn.com/abstract=877951
  33. Giddens, A. (1990), The Consequences of Modernity, Polity Press.
  34. Gillespie, T. (2016), "Algorithm", in Peters, B. ed., Digital Keywords: A Vocabulary of Information Society and Culture, pp. 18-30. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  35. Graham, S. & Wood, D. (2003), "Digitizing Surveillance: Categorization, Space, Inequality", Critical Social Policy, Vol. 23, pp. 227-248. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018303023002006
  36. Hacking, I. (1986), "Making Up People", in Heller, T., Sosna, M., and Wellbery D., ed., Reconstructing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality, and the Self in Western Thought, pp. 222-36, Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  37. Haraway, D. J. (1997), Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium.FemaleMan_Meets_OncoMouse: Feminism and Technoscience. New York: Routledge.
  38. Harcourt, B. E. (2007), Against Prediction: Profiling, Policing, and Punishing in an Actuarial Age, Chicago: University of Chicago Press
  39. Harris, S. (2014. 7), "The Social Laboratory", Foreign Policy.
  40. Helbing, D., et al., (2017. 2), "Will Democracy Survive Big Data and Artificial Intelligence", Scientific American.
  41. Hochschild, A. R. (2012), The Outsourced Self: Intimate Life in Market Times, New York: Metropolitan Books.
  42. Hyman, L. (2011), Debtor Nation: The History of America in Red Ink, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  43. Introna, L. D. (2016), "Algorithms, Governance, and Governmentality: On Governing Academic Writing", Science Technology & Human Values Vol. 41, pp. 17-49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243915587360
  44. Jeacle, I. & Walsh, E. J. (2002), "From Moral Evaluation to Rationalization: Accounting and the Shifting Technologies of Credit", Accounting, Organizations and Society, Vol. 27, no. 8, pp. 737-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-3682(02)00015-6
  45. Jeon, C. (2018), "The Alpha Human Versus the Korean: Figuring the Human through Technoscientific Networks", East Asian Science, Technology and Society, Vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 459-78. https://doi.org/10.1215/18752160-7218816
  46. Jolls, C., Sunstein, C. R, & Thaler, R. (1998), "A Behavioral Approach to Law and Economics", Stanford Law Review Vol. 50, pp. 1471-1550. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229304
  47. Jones, M. L. (2017), "The Right to a Human in the Loop: Political Constructions of Computer Automation and Personhood", Social Studies of Science, Vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 216-39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306312717699716
  48. Karppi, T. & Crawford, K. (2015), "Social Media, Financial Algorithms and the Hack Crash", Theory, Culture & Society, Vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 73-92. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276415583139
  49. Kowalski, R. (1979), "Algorithm = Logic + Control", Communications of the ACM, Vol. 22, pp. 424-36. https://doi.org/10.1145/359131.359136
  50. Krippner, G. R. (2011), Capitalizing on Crisis: The Political Origins of the Rise of Finance, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  51. Lane, C. M. (2011), A Company of One: Insecurity, Independence, and the New World of White-Collar Unemployment, Ithaca: ILR Press.
  52. Larson, J. L. (2010), The Market Revolution in America: Liberty, Ambition, and the Eclipse of the Common Good, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  53. Latour, B. (1987), Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  54. Lauer, J. (2017), Creditworthy: A History of Consumer Surveillance and Financial Identity in America, New York: Columbia University Press.
  55. Levy, J. (2012), Freaks of Fortune: The Emerging World of Capitalism and Risk in America, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  56. Lewis, E. M. (1992), An Introduction to Credit Scoring, San Rafael: Fair Isaac.
  57. Leyshon, A. & Thrift, N. (1999), "Lists Come Alive: Eletronic Systems of Knowledge and the Rise of Credit-Scoring in Retail Banking", Economy and Society, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 434-66. https://doi.org/10.1080/03085149900000013
  58. Livingston, J. (1994), Pragmatism and the Political Economy of Cultural Revolution, 1850-1940, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
  59. Lyon, D. (2003), Surveillance as Social Sorting: Privacy, Risk, and Digital Discrimination, London; New York: Routledge.
  60. Machlup, F. (1962), The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States, Princeton University Press.
  61. Maltz, E. M. & Miller, F. H. (1978), "The Equal Credit Opportunity Act and Regulation B", Oklahoma Law Review, Vol. 31, pp. 1-62.
  62. Marron, D. (2007), "Lending by Numbers: Credit Scoring and the Constitution of Risk within American Consumer Credit", Economy and Society, Vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 103-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/03085140601089846
  63. Marron, D. (2009), Consumer Credit in the United States: A Sociological Perspective from the 19th Century to the Present, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  64. Mayer-Schonberger, V. & Ramge, T. (2013), Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work, and Think, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
  65. Mayer-Schonberger, V. & Ramge, T. (2018), Reinventing Capitalism in the Age of Big Data, New York: Basic Books.
  66. McClanahan, A. (2014), "Bad Credit: the Character of Credit Scoring", Representations, Vol. 126, no. 1, pp. 31-57. https://doi.org/10.1525/rep.2014.126.1.31
  67. Meissner, M. (2017. 9), "China's Social Credit System. Mercator Institute for China Studies", https://www.merics.org/sites/default/files/2017-09/China%20Monitor_39_SOCS_EN.pdf
  68. Mierzwinski, E. & Chester, J. (2013), "Selling Consumers Not Lists: The New World of Digital Decision-Making and the Role of the Fair Credit Reporting Act", Suffolk University Law Review, Vol. 46, pp. 845-880.
  69. Miller, P. (2014), "Accounting for the Calculating Self", in Thrift, N. et. al., eds., Globalisation in Practice, pp. 236-41, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  70. Nissenbaum, H. (2009), Privacy in Context: Technology, Policy, and the Integrity of Social Life, Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  71. Norris, J. D. (1978), R. G. Dun & Co., 1841-1900: The Development of Credit-Reporting in the Nineteenth Century, Westport: Greenwood Press.
  72. O'Neil, C. (2016), Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy, New York: Crown.
  73. Olegario, R. (2006), A Culture of Credit: Embedding Trust and Transparency in American Business, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  74. Olegario, R. (2016), The Engine of Enterprise: Credit in America, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  75. Olney, M. L. (1991), Buy Now, Pay Later: Advertising, Credit, and Consumer Durables in the 1920s, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
  76. Pasquale, F. (2015), The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms That Control Money and Information, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  77. Porter, T. (1995), Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  78. Power, M. (1997), The Audit Society: Rituals of Verification, Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
  79. Rosenberg, E. & Gleit, A. (1994), "Quantitative Methods in Credit Management: A Survey", Operations Research, Vol. 42, pp. 589-613. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.42.4.589
  80. Salter, M. B. (2006), "The Global Visa Regime and the Political Technologies of the International Self: Borders, Bodies, Biopolitics", Alternatives, Vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 167-89. https://doi.org/10.1177/030437540603100203
  81. Sandage, S. A. (2005), Born Losers: A History of Failure in America., Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  82. Schaer, C. (2018. 2. 17), "Big Data vs Big Brother: Germany Edges toward Chinese-style Rating of Citizens", Handelsblatt Today.
  83. Sellers, C. (1991), The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846, New York: Oxford University Press.
  84. Totaro, P. & Ninno, D. (2014), "The Concept of Algorithm as an Interpretative Key of Modern Rationality", Theory, Culture & Society, Vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 29-49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276413510051
  85. Turkle, S. (2012), Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other, New York: Basic Books.
  86. Vaidhyanathan, S. (2011), The Googlization of Everything: (and Why We Should Worry), Berkeley: University of California Press.
  87. Westin, A. F. & Baker, M. A. (1972), Databanks in a Free Society; Computers, Record-Keeping, and Privacy; Report, New York: Quadrangle Books.
  88. Zarsky, T. (2015), "The Trouble with Algorithmic Decisions: An Analytic Road Map to Examine Efficiency and Fairness in Automated and Opaque Decision Making", Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 118-32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243915605575
  89. Zelizer, V. (1979), Morals and Markets: The Development of Life Insurance in the United States, New York: Columbia University Press.
  90. Zuboff, S. (2015), "Big Other: Surveillance Capitalism and the Prospects of an Information Civilization", Journal of Information Technology, Vol, 30, no. 1, pp. 75-89. https://doi.org/10.1057/jit.2015.5