1. Introduction
Identity brand marketing messages that explicitly show consumers’ identity such as identity-defining message that indicates an identity of consumers’ own and suggest that purchasing and using a certain brand expresses their identity (e.g., “If you call yourself a sports fan, you gotta have DirecTV!”) can backfire, since the explicitly identity-defining messages could reduce their perceptions of personal agency in expressing their identity and decrease the value of brand consumption as a meaningful instrument of expressing their identity (Bhattacharjee, Berger, & Menon, 2014).
On the one hand, power as an ability which can be used to influence others (French & Raven, 1959), plays important roles in building brand preferences (Rucker, Galinsky, & Dubois, 2012). When a brand or product can express consumers’ status, high power consumers often go to the place where greater weight is given to their self to foster an agentic orientation (Rucker, Galinsky, & Dubois, 2012). The high-power consumers’ sense of self-weight should help avoid such message type as self-defining message since the message could decrease the perception of their agency to be a greater threat to their self-importance. Compared with high-power consumers, low-power consumers lack the resources to influence others and often tend to be more dependent on others, and this social dependence of the low-power consumers fosters a communal orientation (Rucker, Galinsky, & Dubois, 2012), which could lead them to find who they are at the self-defining message from others. Low-power consumers could have tendency to seek self-value confirmation from the self-defining message. As a result, low-power consumers should be more sensitive to, and pay more attention to, the self-defining message rather than the self-referencing message which just mentions a certain identity.
High power consumers are likely to give greater weight to their competence self-related argument (argument related to skillfulness, efficacy, intelligence and confidence). Conversely, low-power consumers who show a communal orientation are more dependent on others and are likely to give their attention to warmth self-related information (information associated with how good natured, trustworthy, friendly and sincere they are).
However as far to our understanding, past research has given little attention to the roles of power state in the effect of identity-based message type on brand attitude. Hence, this research will be approached in view of four types of messages (competence self-defining, competence self-referencing, warmth self-defining, and warmth self-referencing) having characteristics of both competence self versus warmth self and self-defining versus self-referencing. Therefore, the purposes of current research are described as follows.
Firstly, this research will theoretically review the identity-based consumer behaviour to find the characteristics concerned with consumers’ identity used in developing advertising message. Secondly, this research will also theoretically review the roles of power states on consumer behaviour. Thirdly, we will develop four types of messages such as competence self-defining, competence self-referencing advertising messages, and warmth self-defining and warmth self-referencing advertising messages. Finally, this research will explore whether the effects of the four types of messages on brand attitude vary depending on the power states.
2. Literature Review and Hypotheses
2.1. Identity and Brand Attitude
Evaluations and affect are reflected in forming brand attitudes, and consumers can develop a strong brand–self connection because the brand is part of a person’s self-conception and/or it has instrumental value (Park, MacInnis, Priester, Eisingerich, & Iacobucci, 2010).
Identity can be defined as any category label to which a consumer is connected either by their own choice or endowment (Reed et al., 2012). The category label suggests a mental representation or a clear picture of an individual about what he or she looks like, feels, thinks, and does (Oyserman, 2009).
In the past research identity-based message types affecting brand attitude can be summarized as shown in [Table 1]. At a certain level, a brand can be often channeled to identities when it represents consumer’s personality traits and self-image (Aaker, 1997), or who the consumer is (Belk, Mayer, & Bahn, 1982). This situation involves consumers’ identity being the motivational force that leads them to hold, form, and express identity-based beliefs and behaviors (Escalas & Bettman, 2005). Therefore, it is very essential for marketers to understand what a consumer looks like, thinks, feels, and does (Reed et al., 2012). A consumer’s identity often serves a social adjustment function (Smith, Bruner, & White, 1956). Social identity facilitates distinct beliefs or behaviors that indicate identification internally to their self and externally to the society. In this sense, behavior of a consumer with whom a person shares some basis for social identification may be particularly important in his or her own identity-based decision making (Shang, Croson, & Reed, 2007).
[Table 1] Identity-based Message Type Affecting Brand Attitude
On the other hand, the self could be divided into warmth-self and competence-self. Consumers belonging to warmth self may look for warmth information (how good natured, trustworthy and sincere they are) while the consumers belonging to competence self may look for competence-related information (efficacy, intelligence, skillful) (Dubois, Rucker, & Galinsky, 2016).
Consumers are likely to consume a brand which could express their self. They may form a positive attitude to a brand reflecting an identity they pursue. For example, consumers having warm self may be more affiliated to the brand which gives warmth self-related information whereas competence self-focused consumers may be affiliated to the brand giving competence self-related information. Hence, consumers are more likely to form positive brand attitude if the brand information matches either their warmth identity or competence identity.
2.2. Power State and Social Influence
Power as “an individual’s relative capacity to modify others’ states by providing or withholding resources or administering punishments” (Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003.) could play roles of disproportionately accessing not only to valuable material resources such as money and jobs but also to social resources such as knowledge, respect, and affection (Mourali & Yang, 2013). Therefore, power state could be defined as the extent to which an individual can access to the material resources or the social resources to modify others’ states.
Powerful individuals are thought to be less driven by social norms and the external situation in directing their behaviors and expressions since they are more concerned about themselves (Fiske & De´pret, 1996; Galinsky et al., 2008; Keltner et al., 2003). They were found to have more individualistic nature and display greater behavioral variability than low-power individuals (Guinote, Judd, & Brauer, 2002). A high power consumer has a greater use of competence agency whereas a low power consumer has a greater use of warmth communion (Rucker et al., 2012).
As powerful individuals change their judgement based on their feelings more frequently (Weick & Guinote, 2007), they depend on internal versus external information in forming brand attitude (Brinõl et al., 2007). High power consumers are related with competence (agentic orientation) and low power consumers are related with warmth (communal orientation). Galinksy et al. (2006) found that a state of high-power leads individuals to be more self-oriented and less likely to take the view of others. Because power may always play an important role in determining other’s social influence, it is not surprising that powerful individuals are always focused on competition and are seen less dependent on others in decision making process in comparison to low power people (Rucker, Galinsky, & Dubois, 2012).
2.3. Message Types
Message simply refers to an idea or motif, conveying an information that passes from a communicator to a receiver. Identity marketing messages that clearly connect consumer identity expression to a particular brand may increase the role of governing consumers’ purchasing behavior (Bhattacharjee, Berger, & Menon, 2014). For example, “If you want your mouth to be fresh, you must try Colgate toothpaste” and “Good day begins with dairy milk chocolate”. Since the importance of delivering message is in appealing consumers, messages should clearly show that the given brand fits their identity.
In view of determining the nature of consumers in the context of an advertisement, it is necessary to understand the meaning of identity-referencing and identity-defining messages. Identity-referencing messages are those that simply refer the target identity and suggest how the consumption of a particular brand/product meets these needs (e.g., “All the dumplings you love, all in one restaurant.”). On the other hand, identity-defining messages define the terms of identity expression, suggesting that purchasing a certain brand expresses their identity. For example, “If you call yourself a dumplings fan, you must visit our dumpling restaurant.”
On the other hand, some consumers are convinced with trust, friendliness, sincerity whereas other consumers are convinced with skill, efficacy, intelligence and confidence. Those messages which are focused on skillfulness, efficacy intelligence, and confidence are competence messages. And those messages which give emphases on good nature, trustworthiness, tolerance, friendliness, and sincerity are warmth messages.
By combining such dimensions as identity-referencing versus identity-defining and competence versus warmth, four types of advertising message as shown in [Table 2] can be induced.
[Table 2] Four Types of Advertising Message
( ) means indicator of each type of Advertising Message.
2.3.1. Competence self-defining message:
Competence self-definition messages mean the messages which define the terms of identity expression such as skillfulness, efficacy, intelligence and confidence, and suggest that purchasing a particular brand expresses consumers’ competence identity.
2.3.2. Competence self-referencing message:
Competence self-reference message are those that simply mention the competence identity and suggest how a particular brand could meet consumers’ competence identity needs.
2.3.3. Warmth self-defining message:
Warmth self-definition messages mean the messages which define the terms of identity expression such as good nature, trustworthiness, tolerance, friendliness, and sincerity, and suggest that purchasing a particular brand expresses consumers’ warmth identity.
2.3.4. Warmth self-referencing message:
Warmth self-reference message are those that simply mention the warmth identity and suggest how a particular brand could meet consumers’ warmth identity needs.
2.4. Interaction Role of Power State in the Message Type Effect on Brand Attitude
Which type of message will actually fit consumer’s identity and their power state? Which message could more appeal consumers to create positive brand attitudes? Brand attitude referring to the consumer’s thought about or response to brand can vary depending on the roles of consumers’ power state in the effects of message types on brand attitude. To make answers to these questions it is necessary to explore the interaction role of message types and power state in forming brand attitude.
High power consumers have a greater use of agency together with agentic orientation to be less likely to take others’ perspective into account and be more self-oriented, whereas low power consumers with communal orientation are likely to refer to other’s opinions in making their decision (Galinksy et al., 2006). Agentic orientations helps give attention to competence information, and communal orientations helps focus on warmth information (Bakan, 1966; Dubois, Rucker, & Galinsky, 2016).
High power consumers with agentic orientation are likely to do something based on their competence, and low power consumers with communal orientation are likely to be forced to do something based on others’ perspective. Therefore, consumer power state can play moderation roles for hinging the effects of the message type on brand attitude.
Self-defining messages define consumers’ identity, where high power consumers could feel that their agency in defining their identity is limited. They are not likely to adopt the identity defined by the self-defining messages regardless of whether the defined identity is competence or warmth. But self-referencing messages just mention a certain identity and suggest how to fulfill the identity needs, therefore competence self-referencing messages are less likely to limit high power consumers’ using the agency in defining their identity. High power consumers rather than low power consumers will give more attention to the competence self-referencing messages in forming positive attitude to the brand advertised. Competence self-referencing messages will be better in persuading high power consumers rather than low power consumers in forming positive brand attitude than warmth self-referencing message or competence-and warmthself defining message.
On the other hand, low power consumers with communal orientation might do something based on others’ opinions that could play role as guidance to their behavior. Even self-defining messages define consumers’ identity, and limit the agency in defining their identity, the messages could persuade the low power consumers. Therefore, they are more likely to give their attention to warmth self-defining information. Warmth self-defining messages will be better to low power consumers rather than high power consumers in forming positive brand attitude than competence self-defining message and competence- or warmth-self referencing message.
[H 1] Competence self-referencing advertising message will more persuade high power consumers to form positive brand attitude than competence self-defining advertising message, competence- or warmth-self referencing advertising message.
[H 2] Warmth self-defining advertising message will more persuade low power consumers to form positive brand attitude than competence self-defining advertising message, competence or warmth-self referencing advertising message.
In sum, hypotheses in this research can be delineated by [Figure 1].
[Figure 1] Collection of Hypotheses
3. Research Method
3.1. Experimental Object and Design
Our study uses “Dumpling Restaurant” as an experimental object since Nepali consumers are very familiar with the restaurant store service and tend to experience the service in their daily lives, and we are trying to explore whether there are interaction roles between consumers’ power state and message types in forming the store brand attitude. Our study employs 4(message types: warmth self-defining message, warmth self-referencing message, competence self-defining message, competence self-referencing message) x 2(power: high power and low power) between-subjects design. Therefore, based on four message types and two kinds of power state (high vs. low), we created eight types of questionnaire.
In this study, to prime high and low power state, scenario for each of the two power states was developed. And anonymous ‘K’ was used as restaurant store brand name to avoid the effects of brand fame on brand attitude. Then the K dumpling restaurant store advertisement for each of the four message types was developed. All the types of questionnaire used in our study were prepared in English language.
3.2. Measurements
3.2.1. Power state manipulation and measurements
To manipulate consumers’ power state (high power vs. low power), two types of role-playing scenario were developed by referring to the research of Dubois and his colleagues (2016). First, the scenario to prime high power state focused on boss role was developed as follows.
Imagine, you are a boss of a company. As a boss, you completely control the instructions you give to your employees. You are responsible for governing your subordinates in creating various products and managing work teams. You decide everything including the process of creating products and the standards to evaluate your employees work. In addition, you also evaluate the employees in a private questionnaire; the employees never see your evaluation. The employees have no opportunity to evaluate you.
Second, the scenario to prime low power state was developed as follows focused on employee role.
Imagine you are an employee of a company. As an employee, you must follow the instructions given to you by your boss. You are responsible to carry out the orders of your boss in creating various products. Your boss decides everything including the process of creating products and the standards to evaluate your work. In addition, you are evaluated by your boss. You will never see your boss’s evaluation of you. You have no opportunity to evaluate your boss.
And finally, to measure the extent to which participants perceive their power state, we developed items based on previous research (Brinol et al., 2007; Dubois, Rucker, & Galinsky, 2016), which consist of four items: “I am feeling powerful”, “I feel in charge of the situation”, “I feel in control of the things”, and “I feel I am strong” scaled on 7-point (1=not at all, 7=very much).
3.2.2. Advertisement development and measurements
In our study, we developed four types of advertisement based on the definition of each of the four messages such as competence self-defining message, competence self-referencing message, warmth self-defining message, warmth self-referencing message.
3.2.2.1. Competence self-defining advertisement
In developing this advertisement, we gave attention to defining consumers’ competent identity. The competence self-defining advertising message in our study was, “If you are a skillful competent consumer and a dumpling fan, you gotta use K dumpling restaurant to express who you are!”
3.2.2.2. Competence self-referencing advertisement
This advertising message, focused on consumers’ referring to consumers’ competent identity was, “All the dumplings skillful competent consumers love, all in K dumpling restaurant you as a consumer meet.”
3.2.2.3. Warmth self-defining advertisement
In developing this advertisement, we tried to explore the terms such as good nature, trustworthiness, tolerance, friendliness, and sincerity for the warmth identity to be defined. The warmth self-defining advertising message was “If you are friendly warm consumer and a dumpling fan, you gotta use K dumpling restaurant to express who you are!”
3.2.2.4. Warmth self-referencing advertisement
We tried to explore the message which could simply mention the warmth identity and suggest how a particular brand could meet consumers’ warmth identity needs, in developing this advertisement. The warmth self-referencing message was, “All the dumplings friendly warm consumers love, all in K dumpling restaurant you as a consumer meet.”
3.2.2.5. Advertisement quality measurement
The quality of K restaurant advertisement was measured by three items: “This advertisement is good”, “This advertisement is attractive”, “The quality level of this advertisement is high” on 7-point scale (1= not at all, 7=very much).
3.2.2.6. Self-defining versus–referencing characteristics
To measure characteristics of each of the four advertisements in view of self-referencing versus self-defining, we used one item: “This advertising message (1=just mentions a certain identity, 7=defines who I am)” (Bhattacharjee, Berger, & Menon, 2014).
3.2.2.7. Competence versus warmth characteristics
To check whether participants feel competence self or warmth self at the advertisement of the questionnaire distributed to them, we used one item: “This advertisement message focused on (1= competence identity, 7= warmth identity)” (Dubois, Rucker, & Galinsky, 2016).
3.2.3. Brand attitude measurement
To measure participants’ attitude toward the K restaurant, we used four items: “I like the K restaurant”, “I am in favor of the K restaurant”, “I think the K restaurant is attractive”, “I think quality of the K restaurant is good” on 7-points scale (1= not at all, 7= very much) (Zang & Khare, 2009; Grier & Deshpande, 2001).
3.3. Pretest and Data Collection
For the pretest in our study, we used the four message types in low as well as high power condition. 24 Nepali students in Korea participated in the pretest, where 3 Nepali students were aligned to each of the eight experimental conditions. They were asked to fill up the questionnaire online. According to the critical points from the pretest we modified our advertisement, changed the pattern of some questions and revised typo errors.
We conducted our online main survey in Nepal, and collected 30 people for each of the eight questionnaire types, that is, totally 240 people in Nepal. We randomly distributed 240 questionnaires in which there were 30 questionnaires for each of the eight conditions. The details of the participants are shown below in [Table 3].
[Table 3] Demographic Results
4. Testing Hypotheses
4.1. Description of Basic Statistics
4.1.1. Results of measuring power state
The results of exploring whether participants feel powerful or powerless at each of the boss role and the employee role scenario shows M=3.3271 (S.D=1.64617) at the employee role scenario and M=5.3521 (S.D=1.10075) at the boss role scenario (F(1,238)=125.481, P<.01).
4.1.2. Checking advertisement quality differences and perception of characteristic of message type
ANOVA was used to check the quality difference among the four types of advertisement. From the result of ANOVA we explored that there were no significant quality differences (competence self-defining advertisement (M=4.5381, S.D=1.50821), competence self-referencing advertisement (M=4.4762, S.D=1.59767), warmth self-defining advertisement (M=4.6714, S.D=1.44518), warmth self-referencing advertisement (M=4.6857, S.D=1.36306), F(3,236)=0.334, p>.05).
The results of checking characteristic perception of self-defining and self-referencing message show self-defining message (M=4.99, S.D=1.000) and self-referencing message (M=2.77, S.D=1.104) (F(1,238)=265.866, P<0.01). The results of checking characteristic perception of competence self and warmth self message show competence self message (M=5.51, S.D=0.953), and warmth self message (M=2.45, S.D=1.249) (F(1,238)=454.785, P<.01).
4.1.3. Attitude scores at each of the eight groups
[Figure 2a] [Figure 2b] and [Table 4] show mean attitude scores of each of the eight groups. Under high power condition, participants presented more positive attitude when exposed to competence self-referencing messages (M=4.9083) than to warmth self-defining messages (M=4.8500), competence self-defining messages (M=4.5083) or warm self-referencing messages (M=4.0417).
[Table 4] Attitude Scores at Each of the Eight Groups
[Figure 2a] Attitude Difference among Ad Types in Case of High Power State
[Figure 2b] Attitude Difference among Ad Types in Case of Low Power State
And under low power condition, participants present more positive attitude when exposed by warmth self-defining messages (M=5.8167), than competence self-defining message (M=5.0083), competence self-referencing message (M=4.4167) or warmth self-referencing message (M=4.0583).
And we find the interaction role of power state and advertisement message type on brand attitude. And the result (F(3, 232)=5.063, p<.01) is significant as shown in [Table 5], which means that the power state plays moderation role in the effects of advertisement message types on brand attitude.
[Table 5] Interaction of Power State and Ad Type on Brand Attitude
R2 = .208 (Adjusted R2 =.184)
4.2. Testing Hypotheses
To test [Hypothesis 1] and [Hypothesis 2], we divided the data into high-power state groups which are exposed to questionnaire type 1, 3, 5 and 7, and low-power state groups which are exposed to questionnaire type 2, 4, 6 and 8 as shown in [Table 4].
To test [Hypothesis 1], ANOVA was conducted on high-power state group data, and multiple comparison was also conducted. [Table 6] and [Table 7] shows the results. According to the results, under high power state condition, even though there are significant attitude differences among those four types of message (F(3,116)=14.738, P<.01), there are neither significant differences between competence self-referencing messages and competence self-defining messages (p>.05), nor those between competence self-referencing messages and warm self-defining messages (p>.05). But there is significant differences between competence self-referencing messages and warm self-defining messages (p<.05), Therefore, [Hypothesis 1] is partially supported.
[Table 6] Results of Testing Hypothesis 1
R2 = .098 (Adjusted R2 =.075)
[Table 7] Multiple Comparison in Testing Hypothesis 1
To test [Hypothesis 2], ANOVA was conducted on low power state group data, and multiple comparison was also conducted. According to the results as shown in [Table 8] and [Table 9], there are significant brand attitude differences among those four types of message (F(3,116)= 14.738,P<.05). And there are also significant differences between warm self-defining messages and all the other types of message. Therefore, [Hypothesis 2] is supported.
[Table 8] Results of Testing Hypothesis 2
[Table 9] Multiple Comparison in Testing Hypothesis 2
5. General Discussion
5.1. Summary and Theoretical Contributions
The current research explores the relationships among power states (high vs. low), four types message (competence self-referencing, competence self-defining, warmth self-referencing, warmth self-defining), and brand attitude. The current research shows that attitude towards brand depends on the message type that is delivered to the consumers. Prior researchers have discussed on various types of such messages as competence/warmth messages (Dubois, Rucker, & Galinsky, 2016) and identity-defining/referencing messages (Bhattacharjee, Berger, & Menon, 2014). However to our knowledge, no researchers have discussed on these messages types simultaneously. Our study developed four types of messages (competence self referencing, competence self-defining, warmth self-referencing, warmth self-defining) under two power state conditions (high power vs. low power). We tried to explore the effect of each of the message types in both high and low power state consumers.
The results from our study proved that consumers under low power condition could be more persuaded by warmth self-defining message than competence self-referencing, competence self-defining and warmth self-referencing messages, while under high power condition there are neither the differences between competence self-referencing message and competence self-defining message, nor those between competence self-referencing message and warm self-defining message, just the differences between competence self-referencing message and warmth self-referencing message are significant. Warmth self-defining message is better to persuade consumers under low power state in which an individual can not access to the resources to modify others’ states. And warmth self-referencing message is not good in persuading consumers under high power state. Our study shows that the power states of a consumer could play a moderation roles in the effect of advertising message types on forming brand attitude. Therefore this study contributes to the advertising theory development.
5.2. Managerial Implications and Limitations
Our research has several contribution to the marketing field. This research could suggest the reason why it is necessary for marketers to deliver the proper self-based defining versus referencing message to consumers according to their power state. Our research provides greater implications for marketers in developing advertising messages. Based on our results, marketers may get an idea of dividing consumers into high vs. low power state while developing the different message types and the reasons why they should be more conscious of delivering which message types to what power state level of consumers.
In the empirical study of this research, power state was manipulated by the scenario related to boss role versus employee role. However power state could be measured by the extent to which consumers can access to social resources such as knowledge, respect, and affection as well as material resources such as money and jobs. Therefore, marketers should take various types of materials into account to explore consumers’ power state.
Marketers should deliver warmth self-defining message to low power state of consumers rather than competence self-referencing, competence self-defining or warmth self-referencing messages. And Marketers should not deliver warmth self-referencing message to consumers under high power state.
This research has several limitations which could be helpful for new studies in future. First, our study focused on only Nepali consumers who are mainly students. The future research can involve non students as well as people from different countries and culture for the richer results. For example, teenagers’ perceptions of viewing the advertisement may be different from those of adults and old people’s perception. So, equally involving people from every age group could make the results richer.
Second, both the differences between competence self-referencing message and competence self-defining message and those between competence self-referencing message and warm self-defining message were not significant in testing [Hypothesis 1]. Whether the meanings of each of the message types are adopted or not can vary depending on cultural value that consumers pursue. Nepal where our online main survey was conducted is belonged to non-Western Oriental culture insisting on the fundamental connectedness of human behaviors to each other (Schwartz, 1992). Triandis (1995) explored that the significance assigned to the inner, private aspects versus the outer public relational aspects in regulating behavior will vary markedly by culture. The functional roles that an individual assigns to others when defining his or her self could depend on the culturally shared norms about separation or connectedness between the self and others. Individuals under individualism culture may cease to be a unit with others by sensing personal power, whereas those under collectivism culture may think of the relationship with others by sensing belongingness to their social relations (Mia, 2017; Li, Wu, & Fan, 2017; Li & Li, 2017). Therefore there is a possibility that Individuals under collectivism versus individualism culture accept the self defined by others of their in-group regardless of whether the self is competence or warmth. Future research could be approached in view of the cultural value or belief differences among the countries. Some countries, for instance, may have their own cultural norms or values followed by consumers while they consume a product or brand. In these cases, they will protect their cultural norms, beliefs or values. Hence, it is necessary to check the roles of the cultural value in the interaction effect of the message types and power state on the brand attitude.
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