Journal of Dairy Science and Biotechnology

Korean Society of Dairy Science and Biotechnology (한국낙농식품응용생물학회)
권호 표지

Assessment of Various Factors Influencing the Composition of Cow's Milk Produced by Organic and Conventional Methods: A Review

유기농 우유와 일반 우유의 성분에 영향을 주는 다양한 요인 평가: 총설

  • Kim, Hong-Seok (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University) ;
  • Chon, Jung-Whan (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University) ;
  • Kim, Hyunsook (Dept. of Food & Nutrition, College of Human Ecology, Hanyang University) ;
  • Lee, Soo-Kyung (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University) ;
  • Kim, Dong-Hyeon (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University) ;
  • Lee, Joo-Yeon (Korea Livestock Products HACCP Accreditation Service) ;
  • Yim, Jin-Hyuk (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University) ;
  • Song, Kwang-Young (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University) ;
  • Kim, Young-Ji (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University) ;
  • Kang, Il-Byung (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University) ;
  • Jeong, Dana (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University) ;
  • Park, Jin-Hyeong (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University) ;
  • Jang, Ho-Seok (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University) ;
  • Seo, Kun-Ho (Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University)
  • 김홍석 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소) ;
  • 천정환 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소) ;
  • 김현숙 (한양대학교 생활과학대학 식품영양학과) ;
  • 이수경 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소) ;
  • 김동현 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소) ;
  • 이주연 (축산물안전관리인증원) ;
  • 임진혁 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소) ;
  • 송광영 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소) ;
  • 김영지 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소) ;
  • 강일병 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소) ;
  • 정다나 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소) ;
  • 박진형 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소) ;
  • 장호석 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소) ;
  • 서건호 (건국대학교 수의과대학 식품안전건강연구소)
  • Received : 2016.01.04
  • Accepted : 2016.02.01
  • Published : 2016.03.31
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Recently, there has been a rapid increase in the sale and purchase of an array of organic products. In particular, organic milk has grown in popularity. This growth could lead to expensive, premium retail prices for various organic cow's milk products. In fact, most consumers believe that (1) dairy farming to produce organic milk is beneficial for human health and (2) organic milk products are made without the use of various antibiotics, synthetic chemicals, genetic modification, extra hormones, and so on. Several factors, including breed, diet, and stage of lactation, are known to influence the composition of milk. Therefore, this review (1) presents a research outline to compare organic and conventional milk and (2) provides a summary of individual elements that affect the composition of milk.

유기농 우유에 관한 소비자들의 인식은 일반 우유와 다르다는 생각을 가지고 있다. 이러한 차이가 유기농 우유가 소매판매 시에 높은 가격으로 판매되는 것을 정당화하게 된다. 유기농을 위한 낙농장은 환경, 동물, 사람에게 더 친화적이며, 유기농 우유제품은 항생제 첨가 호르몬, 합성 화학 물질 및 유전적 변형을 사용하지 않고 제조되며, 그리고 되는 것을 인간의 건강에 대한 잠재적인 많은 이점을 줄 수 있을 것으로 인식을 하고 있다. 유기농 및 일반적인 방법으로 생산된 우유에서 차이가 존재하는지에 관한 조사제어연구는 대부분 모호하였는데, 이것은 우유 조성물에 영향을 미칠 수 있는 연구문제와 다양한 요인들의 복잡성에 기인한 것이기 때문이다. 농장방법과 그들이 효과는 유기농법과 일반농법 사이에서도 다를 뿐만 아니라, 국가, 지역, 연도, 계절에 따라 다르다는 것이 주요 문제이다. 우유 조성물을 좌우하는 요인들은 (예를 들면, 사료, 품종, 수유의 단계) 개별적으로 연구되어왔다, 반면, 여러 요인들 간의 상호 작용은 대부분 무시되어왔다. 농장시스템(유기농 또는 일반)이 아닌 다른 요인들을 고려하지 않은 연구는 유기농 우유와 일반 우유 사이에서 시스템관련 차이를 결정하는 것이 불가능한 우유성분에 있어서 보고된 차이를 유발할 수도 있고, 또는 기여할 수도 있다. 유기농 우유와 일반 우유가 비교될 때 우유의 지방산 조성이 중점적으로 연구되는데, 이것은 우유지방산 profile은 빠르게 반응하고, 사료의 변화에 매우 민감하기 때문이다. 따라서, 농장시스템(유기농 또는 일반)보다는 농장방법(과잉급여와 낮은 급여)의 효과는 우유 지방산 프로파일을 결정하며, 유사한 결과는 낮은 급여 유기농과 일반 우유에서 보여졌다. 일반적인 방법으로 생산된 우유와 유기농 우유를 구분하고, 제품을 검증을 제공할 수 있는 분석방법을 개발하는데 혼란을 야기한다. 연구들 사이에 있어서 실험의 복잡성과 일관성에 있어서 차이와 여러 가지 영향 요인들 사이에서의 상호작용에 대한 연구부족은 자료분석을 어렵게 하고, 또한 명백한 결론을 도출하는 것이 쉽지 않게 된다. 본 총설논문은 우유 조성물에 영향을 주는 것으로 알려진 개별적인 요소들을 자세하게 정리하고, 또한 유기농 우유와 일반 우유를 비교한 연구 등을 소개하였다.

Keywords

References

  1. Adler, S. A., Jensen, S. K., Govasmark, E. and Steinshamn, H. 2013. Effect of short-term versus long-term grassland management and seasonal variation in organic and conventional dairy farming on the composition of bulk tank milk. J. Dairy Sci. 96:5793-5810. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-5765
  2. Ahlman, T., Berglund, B., Rydhmer, L. and Strandberg, E. 2011. Culling reasons in organic and conventional dairy herds and genotype by environment interaction for longevity. J. Dairy Sci. 94:1568-1575. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2010-3483
  3. Anacker, G. 2007. Differences between composition of organic milk and conventional milk. Lebensmitt. Milchwirtsch. 128:17-25.
  4. Arnold, C. and Jahreis, G. 2011. Milk fat and health. ErnahrungsUmschau 58:177-181.
  5. AsureQuality. 2013. AsureQuality organic standard for primary producers - Version 5. Page 129. AsureQuality Ltd., New Zealand.
  6. Baars, T., Wohlers, J., Kusche, D. and Jahreis, G. 2012. Experimental improvement of cow milk fatty acid composition in organic winter diets. J. Sci. Food Agric. 92:2883-2890. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5525
  7. Bath, S. C., Button, S. and Rayman, M. P. 2012. Iodine concentration of organic and conventional milk: Implications for iodine intake. Br. J. Nutr. 107:935-940. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114511003059
  8. Bergamo, P., Fedele, E., Iannibelli, L. and Marzillo, G. 2003. Fat-soluble vitamin contents and fatty acid composition in organic and conventional Italian dairy products. Food Chem. 82:625-631. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(03)00036-0
  9. Bilal, G., Cue, R. I., Mustafa, A. F. and Hayes, J. F. 2012. Short communication: Estimates of heritabilities and genetic correlations among milk fatty acid unsaturation indices in Canadian Holsteins. J. Dairy Sci. 95:7367-7371. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-5684
  10. Bilik, K. and Lopuszanska-Rusek, M. 2010. Effect of organic and conventional feeding of Red-and-White cows on productivity and milk composition. Ann. Anim. Sci. 10:441-458.
  11. Blank, B., Schaub, D., Paulsen, H. M. and Rahmann, G. 2013. Comparison of performance and feeding parameters in organic and conventional dairy farms in Germany. Landbauforschung Volkenrode 63:21-27. (In German)
  12. Bleck, G. T., Wheeler, M. B., Hansen, L. B., Chester-Jones, H. and Miller, D. J. 2009. Lactose synthase components in milk: Concentrations of ${\alpha}$-lactalbumin and ${\beta}1,4$-galactosyltransferase in milk of cows from several breeds at various stages of lactation. Reprod. Domest. Anim. 44:241-247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0531.2007.01047.x
  13. Boudonck, K. J., Mitchell, M. W., Wulff, J. and Ryals, J. A. 2009. Characterization of the biochemical variability of bovine milk using metabolomics. Metabolomics 5:375-386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11306-009-0160-8
  14. Butler, G., Nielsen, J. H., Slots, T., Seal, C., Eyre, M. D., Sanderson, R. and Leifert, C. 2008. Fatty acid and fat-soluble antioxidant concentrations in milk from high- and low-input conventional and organic systems: Seasonal variation. J. Sci. Food Agric. 88:1431-1441. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.3235
  15. Cabrita, A. R. J., Bessa, R. J. B., Alves, S. P., Dewhurst, R. J. and Fonseca, A. J. M. 2007. Effects of dietary protein and starch on intake, milk production, and milk fatty acid profiles of dairy cows fed corn silage-based diets. J. Dairy Sci. 90:1429-1439. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(07)71628-4
  16. Canadian General Standards Board. 2011. Organic Production Systems General Principles and Management Standards. Page 39. Standards Council of Canada.
  17. Capuano, E., Rademaker, J., van den Bijgaart, H. and van Ruth, S. M. 2014. Verification of fresh grass feeding, pasture grazing and organic farming by FTIR spectroscopy analysis of bovine milk. Food Res. Int. 60:59-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2013.12.024
  18. Carpio, A., Rodriguez-Estevez, V., Sanchez-Rodriguez, M., Arce, L. and Valcarcel, M. 2010. Differentiation of organic goat's milk based on its hippuric acid content as determined by capillary electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 31:2211-2217. https://doi.org/10.1002/elps.200900728
  19. Carroll, S. M., DePeters, E. J., Taylor, S. J., Rosenberg, M., Perez-Monti, H. and Capps, V. A. 2006. Milk composition of Holstein, Jersey, and Brown Swiss cows in response to increasing levels of dietary fat. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 131:451-473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2006.06.019
  20. Cmen, M., Yldrm, N., Dkc, A., Kaplan, O. and Yldrm, N. C. 2010. Seasonal variations of biochemical taste parameters in milks from conventional and environment-friendly organic farming. Bulg. J. Agric. Sci. 16:728-732.
  21. Coggins, P. C., Schilling, M. W., Kumari, S. and Gerrard, P. D. 2008. Development of a sensory lexicon for conventional milk yogurt in the United States. J. Sens. Stud. 23:671-687. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-459X.2008.00179.x
  22. Coleman, J., Pierce, K. M., Berry, D. P., Brennan, A. and Horan, B. 2010. Increasing milk solids production across lactation through genetic selection and intensive pasture-based feed system. J. Dairy Sci. 93:4302-4317. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2009-2591
  23. Craninx, M., Steen, A., Van Laar, H., Van Nespen, T., Martin-Tereso, J., De Baets, B. and Fievez, V. 2008. Effect of lactation stage on the odd- and branched-chain milk fatty acids of dairy cattle under grazing and indoor conditions. J. Dairy Sci. 91:2662-2677. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2007-0656
  24. Croissant, A. E., Washburn, S. P., Dean, L. L. and Drake, M. A. 2007. Chemical properties and consumer perception of fluid milk from conventional and pasture-based production systems. J. Dairy Sci. 90:4942-4953. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2007-0456
  25. Cubon, J., Foltys, V., Haspik, P., Kapaniova, M., Ubreziova, I., Krapmar, S. and Vavrisinova, K. 2008. The raw milk quality from organic and conventional agriculture. Acta Univ. Agric. Silvic. Mendel. Brun. 56:25-30.
  26. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. 2010. Guidance Document on European Union Organic Standards. Page 31. Welsh Assembly Government; Department of Agriculture and Rural Development; The Scottish Government.
  27. Ellis, K. A., Monteiro, A., Innocent, G. T., Grove-White, D., Cripps, P., Graham McLean, W., Howard, C. V. and Mihm, M. 2007. Investigation of the vitamins A and E and ${\beta}$-carotene content in milk from UK organic and conventional dairy farms. J. Dairy Res. 74:484-491.
  28. Ellis, K. A., Innocent, G. T., Mihm, M., Cripps, P., McLean, W. G., Howard, C. V. and Grove-White, D. 2007. Dairy cow cleanliness and milk quality on organic and conventional farms in the UK. J. Dairy Res. 74:302-310. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002202990700249X
  29. Fall, N. and Emanuelson, U. 2011. Fatty acid content, vitamins and selenium in bulk tank milk from organic and conventional Swedish dairy herds during the indoor season. J. Dairy Res. 78:287-292. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022029911000392
  30. Flowers, G., Ibrahim, S. A. and AbuGhazaleh, A. A. 2008. Milk fatty acid composition of grazing dairy cows when supplemented with linseed oil. J. Dairy Sci. 91:722-730. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2007-0410
  31. Gabryszuk, M., Sloniewski, K. and Sakowski, T. 2008. Macro- and microelements in milk and hair of cows from conventional vs. organic farms. Anim. Sci. Pap. Rep. 26:199-209.
  32. GallinaToschi, T., Bendini, A., Barbieri, S., Valli, E., Cezanne, M. L., Buchecker, K. and Canavari, M. 2012. Organic and conventional nonflavored yogurts from the Italian market: Study on sensory profiles and consumer acceptability. J. Sci. Food Agric. 92:2788-2795. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5666
  33. Garmo, R. T., Waage, S., Sviland, S., Henriksen, B. I. F., Osteras, O. and Reksen, O. 2010. Reproductive performance, udder health, and antibiotic resistance in mastitis bacteria isolated from Norwegian Red cows in conventional and organic farming. Acta Vet. Scand. 52:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1751-0147-52-11
  34. Ghidini, S., Zanardi, E., Battaglia, A., Varisco, G., Ferretti, E., Campanini, G. and Chizzolini, R. 2005. Comparison of contaminant and residue levels in organic and conventional milk and meat products from Northern Italy. Food Addit. Contam. 22:9-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030400027995
  35. Golda, A., Szyniarowski, P., Ostrowska, K., Kozik, A. and RapalaKozik, M. 2004. Thiamine binding and metabolism in germinating seeds of selected cereals and legumes. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 42:187-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2004.01.002
  36. Gross, J., Van Dorland, H. A., Bruckmaier, R. M. and Schwarz, F. J. 2011. Milk fatty acid profile related to energy balance in dairy cows. J. Dairy Res. 78:479-488. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022029911000550
  37. Gruber, L., Steinwender, R., Guggenberger, T., Hausler, J. and Schauer, A. 2001. Comparison of organic and conventional farming on a grassland farm. Second Communication: Feed intake, milk yield, health and fertility parameters. Bodenkultur 52:55-70.
  38. Guo, J. Z., Liu, X. L., Xu, A. J. and Xia, Z. 2010. Relationship of somatic cell count with milk yield and composition in Chinese Holstein population. Agric. Sci. China 9:1492-1496. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1671-2927(09)60243-1
  39. Hanus, O., Brychtova, J., Gencurova, V., Pesl, J., Hulova, I., Vyletelova, M., Jedelska, R. and Kopecky, J. 2008. Effect of conversion from conventional to organic dairy farm on milk quality and health of dairy cows. Folia Vet. 52:140-148.
  40. Hanus, O., Vorlicek, Z., Sojkova, K., Rozsypal, R., Vyletelova, M., Roubal, P., Gencurova, V., Pozdisek, J. and Landova, H. 2008. A comparison of selected milk indicators in organic herds with conventional herd as reference. Folia Vet. 52:155-159.
  41. Haug, A., Hostmark, A. T. and Harstad, O. M. 2007. Bovine milk inhuman nutrition-A review. Lipids Health Disease 6:25. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-511X-6-25
  42. Hermansen, J. E., Badsberg, J. H., Kristensen, T. and Gundersen, V. 2005. Major and trace elements in organically or conventionally produced milk. J. Dairy Res. 72:362-368. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022029905000968
  43. Honorato, L. A., Machado Filho, L. C. P., Barbosa Silveira, I. D. and Hotzel, M. J. 2014. Strategies used by dairy family farmers in the south of Brazil to comply with organic regulations. J. Dairy Sci. 97:1319-1327. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-6532
  44. Kalac, P. 2011. The effects of silage feeding on some sensory and health attributes of cow's milk: A review. Food Chem. 125:307-317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.08.077
  45. Khiaosa-Ard, R., Klevenhusen, F., Soliva, C. R., Kreuzer, M. and Leiber, F. 2010. Transfer of linoleic and linolenic acid from feed to milk in cows fed isoenergetic diets differing in proportion and origin of concentrates and roughages. J. Dairy Res. 77:331-336. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022029910000257
  46. Kuczynska, B., Puppel, K., Golebiewski, M., Metera, E., Sakowski, T. and Sloniewski, K. 2012. Differences in whey protein content between cow's milk collected in late pasture and early indoor feeding season from conventional and organic farms in Poland. J. Sci. Food Agric. 92:2899-2904. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5663
  47. Leiber, F., Kreuzer, M., Nigg, D., Wettstein, H. R. and Scheeder, M. R. L. 2005. A study on the causes for the elevated n-3 fatty acids in cows' milk of alpine origin. Lipids 40:191-202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-005-1375-3
  48. Lemosquet, S., Delamaire, E., Lapierre, H., Blum, J. W. and Peyraud, J. L. 2009. Effects of glucose, propionic acid, and nonessential amino acids on glucose metabolism and milk yield in Holstein dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 92:3244-3257. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2008-1610
  49. Lindmark Mansson, H. 2008. Fatty acids in bovine milk fat. Food Nutr. Res. 52:10.
  50. Liu, Z., Kanter, C. A., Messer, K. D. and Kaiser, H. M. 2013. Identifying significant characteristics of organic milk consumers: ACART analysis of an artefactual field experiment. Appl. Econ.45:3110-3121. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2012.699189
  51. Lock, A. L., Preseault, C. L., Rico, J. E., DeLand, K. E. and Allen, M. S. 2013. Feeding a C16:0-enriched fat supplement increased the yield of milk fat and improved convertsion of feed to milk. J. Dairy Sci. 96:6650-6659. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2013-6892
  52. Loften, J. R., Linn, J. G., Drackley, J. K., Jenkins, T. C., Soderholm, C. G. and Kertz, A. F. 2014. Invited review: Palmitic and stearic acid metabolism in lactating dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 97:4661-4674. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2014-7919
  53. Maurice-Van Eijndhoven, M. H. T., Hiemstra, S. J. and Calus, M. P. L. 2011. Short communication: Milk fat composition of 4 cattle breeds in the Netherlands. J. Dairy Sci. 94:1021-1025. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2009-3018
  54. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. 2012. Japanese Agricultural Standard for Organic Livestock Products. Notification No. 1608 of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of October 27, 2005. Partial Revision 2012:17.
  55. Mogensen, L., Kristensen, T., Soegaard, K., Jensen, S. K. and Sehested, J. 2012. Alfa-tocopherol and beta-carotene in roughages and milk in organic dairy herds. Livest. Sci. 145:44-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2011.12.021
  56. Molkentin, J. 2008. Laboratory authentication of organic milk. Deutsche Milchwirtschaft 59:873-874.
  57. Molkentin, J. 2009. Authentication of organic milk using 13C and the alpha-linolenic acid content of milk fat. J. Agric. Food Chem. 57:785-790. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf8022029
  58. Moorby, J. M., Lee, M. R. F., Davies, D. R., Kim, E. J., Nute, G. R., Ellis, N. M. and Scollan, N. D. 2009. Assessment of dietary ratios of red clover and grass silages on milk production and milk quality in dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 92:1148-1160. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2008-1771
  59. Mullen, K. A. E., Sparks, L. G., Lyman, R. L., Washburn, S. P. and Anderson, K. L. 2013. Comparisons of milk quality on North Carolina organic and conventional dairies. J. Dairy Sci. 96:6753-6762. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-6519
  60. Muller, U. and Sauerwein, H. 2010. A comparison of somatic cell count between organic and conventional dairy cow herds in West Germany stressing dry period related changes. Livest. Sci. 127:30-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2009.08.003
  61. Muller-Lindenlauf, M., Deittert, C. and Kopke, U. 2010. Assessment of environmental effects, animal welfare and milk quality among organic dairy farms. Livest. Sci. 128:140-148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2009.11.013
  62. Mut, H., Ayan, I., Acar, Z., Basaran, U., Tongel, O. and Asci, O. 2009. Relationship between soil structure and botanical composition of the flat pastures in coastal region of Samsun province. Asian J. Chem. 21:971-978.
  63. Nantapo, C. T. W., Muchenje, V. and Hugo, A. 2014. Atherogenicity index and health-related fatty acids in different stages of lactation from Friesian, Jersey and Friesian${\times}$Jersey cross cow milk under a pasture-based dairy system. Food Chem. 146:127-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.09.009
  64. National Agricultural Products Quality Management Service (NAQS). 2014. Organic Processed Food Certification System. Accessed January 3, 2016. http://www.naqs.go.kr/eng/contents/Agrifood/Agrifood/B_01.naqs
  65. Nauta, W. J., Baars, T., Saatkamp, H., Weenink, D. and Roep, D. 2009. Farming strategies in organic dairy farming: Effects on breeding goal and choice of breed. An explorative study. Livest. Sci. 121:187-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2008.06.011
  66. Organic Industry Standards and Certification Committee. 2013. National Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce-Edition3.5. Page 74. Department of Agriculture, Australia.
  67. Palladino, R. A., Buckley, F., Prendiville, R., Murphy, J. J., Callan, J. and Kenny, D. A. 2010. A comparison between Holstein-Friesian and Jersey dairy cows and their $F_1$ hybrid on milk fatty acid composition under grazing conditions. J. Dairy Sci. 93:2176-2184. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2009-2453
  68. Palupi, E., Jayanegara, A., Ploeger, A. and Kahl, J. 2012. Comparison of nutritional quality between conventional and organic dairy products: A meta-analysis. J. Sci. Food Agric. 92:2774-2781. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5639
  69. Pape-Zambito, D. A., Roberts, R. F. and Kensinger, R. S. 2010. Estrone and 17 beta-estradiol concentrations in pasteurized-homogenized milk and commercial dairy products. J. Dairy Sci. 93:2533-2540. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2009-2947
  70. Phillips, C. J. C., Chiy, P. C., Arney, D. R. and Kart, O. 2000. Effects of sodium fertilizers and supplements on milk production and mammary gland health. J. Dairy Res. 67:1-12. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022029999003970
  71. Piccand, V., Cutullic, E., Meier, S., Schori, F., Kunz, P. L., Roche, J. R. and Thomet, P. 2013. Production and reproduction of Fleckvieh, Brown Swiss, and 2 strains of Holstein-Friesian cows in a pasture based, seasonal-calving dairy system. J. Dairy Sci. 96:5352-5363. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-6444
  72. Pilarczyk, B., Pilarczyk, R., Tomza-Marciniak, A., Kowieska, A., Wojcik, J., Sablik, P., Tylkowska, A. and Hendzel, D. 2011. Selenium concentrations in the serum and milk of cows from organic and conventional farms in West Pomerania. Tierarztl. Umsch. 64:327-331.
  73. Pilarczyk, R., Wojcik, J., Czerniak, P., Sablik, P., Pilarczyk, B. and Tomza-Marciniak, A. 2013. Concentrations of toxic heavy metals and trace elements in raw milk of Simmental and Holstein-Friesian cows from organic farm. Environ. Monit. Assess. 185:8383-8392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3180-9
  74. Qin, L. Q., Wang, X. P., Li, W., Tong, X. and Tong, W. J. 2009. The minerals and heavy metals in cow's milk from China and Japan. J. Health Sci. 55:300-305. https://doi.org/10.1248/jhs.55.300
  75. Ramalho, H. M., Campos, S. D., Casal, S., Alves, R. and Oliveira, M. B. P. 2012. Lipid fraction quality of milk produced by Minhota (Portuguese Autochthonous breed) compared to Holstein Friesian cow's. J. Sci. Food Agric. 92:2994-3001. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5713
  76. Rey-Crespo, F., Miranda, M. and Lopez-Alonso, M. 2013. Essential trace and toxic element concentrations in organic and conventional milk in NW Spain. Food Chem. Toxicol. 55:513-518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2013.01.040
  77. Richert, R. M., Cicconi, K. M., Gamroth, M. J., Schukken, Y. H., EStiglbauer, K. and Ruegg, P. L. 2013. Management factors associated with veterinary usage by organic and conventional dairy farms. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 242:1732-1743. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.242.12.1732
  78. Rius, A. G., Appuhamy, J. A. D. R. N., Cyriac, J., Kirovski, D., Becvar, O., Escobar, J., McGilliard, M. L., Bequette, B. J., Akers, R. M. and Hanigan, M. D. 2010. Regulation of protein synthesis in mammary glands of lactating dairy cows by starch and amino acids. J. Dairy Sci. 93:3114-3127. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2009-2743
  79. Roche, J. R., Turner, L. R., Lee, J. M., Edmeades, D. C., Donaghy, D. J., Macdonald, K. A., Penno, J. W. and Berry, D. P. 2009. Weather, herbage quality and milk production in pastoral systems. 4. Effects on dairy cattle production. Anim. Prod. Sci. 49:222-232. https://doi.org/10.1071/EA07310
  80. Roesch, M., Doherr, M. G. and Blum, J. W. 2005. Performance of dairy cows on Swiss farms with organic and integrated production. J. Dairy Sci. 88:2462-2475. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(05)72924-6
  81. Roesch, M., Doherr, M. G., Scharen, W., Schallibaum, M. and Blum, J. W. 2007. Subclinical mastitis in dairy cows in Swiss organic and conventional production systems. J. Dairy Res. 74:86-92. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002202990600210X
  82. Rosati, A., and Aumaitre, A. 2004. Organic dairy farming in Europe. Livest. Prod. Sci. 90:41-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livprodsci.2004.07.005
  83. Schroder, M., Yousefi, F. and Vetter, W. 2011. Investigating the day to-day variations of potential marker fatty acids for organic milk in milk from conventionally and organically raised cows. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 232:167-174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-010-1374-8
  84. Schwendel, B. H., Wester, T. J., Morel, P. C. H., Tavendale, M. H., Deadman, C., Shadbolt, N. M. and Otter, D. E. 2015. Organic and conventionally produced milk-An evaluation of factors influencing milk composition. J. Dairy Sci. 98:721-746. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2014-8389
  85. Shahbazkia, H. R., Aminlari, M., Tavasoli, A., Mohamadnia, A. R. and Cravador, A. 2010. Associations among milk production traits and glycosylated haemoglobin in dairy cattle; Importance of lactose synthesis potential. Vet. Res. Commun. 34:1-9.
  86. Simopoulos, A. P. 2003. Importance of the ratio of ${\omega}-6/{\omega}-3$ essential fatty acids: Evolutionary aspects. World Rev. Nutr. Diet. 92:1-22.
  87. Simopoulos, A. P. 2010. The ${\omega}-6/{\omega}-3$ fatty acid ratio: Health implications. Ol. Corps Gras Lipides 17:267-275. https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl.2010.0325
  88. Slots, T., Sorensen, J. and Nielsen, J. H. 2008. Tocopherol, carotenoids and fatty acid composition in organic and conventional milk. Milchwissenschaft 63:352-355.
  89. Smith, K. M., Abrahams, P. W., Dagleish, M. P. and Steigmajer, J. 2009. The intake of lead and associated metals by sheep grazing mining-contaminated floodplain pastures in mid-Wales, UK: I. Soil ingestion, soil-metal partitioning and potential availability to pasture herbage and livestock. Sci. Total Environ. 407:3731-3739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.02.032
  90. Smith-Spangler, C., Brandeau, M. L., Hunter, G. E., Clay Bavinger, J., Pearson, M., Eschbach, P. J., Sundaram, V., Liu, H., Schirmer, P., Stave, C., Olkin, I. and Bravata, D. M. 2012. Are organic foods safer or healthier than conventional alternatives? A systematic review. Ann. Intern. Med. 157:348-366. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-157-5-201209040-00007
  91. Soyeurt, H., Gillon, A., Vanderick, S., Mayeres, P., Bertozzi, C. and Gengler, N. 2007. Estimation of heritability and genetic correlations for the major fatty acids in bovine milk. J. Dairy Sci. 90:4435-4442. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2007-0054
  92. Stergiadis, S., Seal, C. J., Leifert, C., Eyre, M. D., Larsen, M. K. and Butler, G. 2013. Variation in nutritionally relevant components in retail Jersey and Guernsey whole milk. Food Chem. 139:540-548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.01.078
  93. Stiglbauer, K. E., Cicconi-Hogan, K. M., Richert, R., Schukken, Y. H., Ruegg, P. L. and Gamroth, M. 2013. Assessment of herd management on organic and conventional dairy farms in the United States. J. Dairy Sci. 96:1290-1300. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-5845
  94. Sundberg, T., Berglund, B., Rydhmer, L. and Strandberg, E. 2009. Fertility, somatic cell count and milk production in Swedish organic and conventional dairy herds. Livest. Sci. 126:176-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2009.06.022
  95. Sundberg, T., Rydhmer, L., Fikse, W. F., Berglund, B. and Strandberg, E. 2010. Genotype by environment interaction of Swedish dairy cows in organic and conventional production systems. Acta Agric. Scand. A Anim. Sci. 60:65-73.
  96. Toledo, P., Andren, A. and Bjorck. L. 2002. Composition of raw milk from sustainable production systems. Int. Dairy J. 12:75-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-6946(01)00148-0
  97. Tu, W. C., Cook-Johnson, R. J., James, M. J., Muhlhausler, B. S. and Gibson, R. A. 2010. ${\Omega}$-3 long chain fatty acid synthesis is regulated more by substrate levels than gene expression. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 83:61-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2010.04.001
  98. US Government Printing Office. 2014. Electronic Code of Federal Regulations: Regulations of the Department of Agriculture: Subchapter M-Organic Foods Production Act Provisions. Vol. 2014.
  99. Vaarst, M. and Bennedsgaard, T. W. 2001. Reduced medication inorganic farming with emphasis on organic dairy production. Acta Vet. Scand. Suppl. 95:51-57.
  100. Valle, P. S., Lien, G., Flaten, O., Koesling, M. and Ebbesvik, M. 2007. Herd health and health management in organic versus conventional dairy herds in Norway. Livest. Sci. 112:123-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2007.02.005
  101. Van Hulzen, K. J. E., Sprong, R. C., van der Meer, R. and van Arendonk, J. A. M. 2009. Genetic and nongenetic variation in concentration of selenium, calcium, potassium, zinc, magnesium, and phosphorus in milk of Dutch Holstein-Friesian cows. J. Dairy Sci. 92:5754-5759. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2009-2406
  102. Vanhatalo, A., Gaddnas, T. and Heikkila, T. 2006. Microbial protein synthesis, digestion and lactation responses of cows to grass or grass-red clover silage diet supplemented with barley or oats. Agric. Food Sci. 15:252-267. https://doi.org/10.2137/145960606779216236
  103. Vetter, W. and Schroder, M. 2010. Concentrations of phytanic acid and pristanic acid are higher in organic than in conventional dairy products from the German market. Food Chem. 119:746-752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.07.027
  104. Vicini, J., Etherton, T., Kris-Etherton, P., Ballam, J., Denham, S., Staub, R., Goldstein, D., Cady, R., McGrath, M. and Lucy, M. 2008. Survey of retail milk composition as affected by label claims regarding farm-management practices. J. Am. Diet. Assoc.108:1198-1203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2008.04.021
  105. Vlaeminck, B., Fievez, V., Cabrita, A. R. J., Fonseca, A. J. M. and Dewhurst, R. J. 2006. Factors affecting odd- and branched-chain fatty acids in milk: A review. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 131:389-417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2006.06.017
  106. Waiblinger, S., Menke, C. and Coleman, G. 2002. The relationship between attitudes, personal characteristics and behaviour of stock people and subsequent behaviour and production of dairy cows. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 79:195-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00155-7
  107. Wang, C., Liu, J. X., Yuan, Z. P., Wu, Y. M., Zhai, S. W. and Ye, H. W. 2007. Effect of level of metabolizable protein on milk production and nitrogen utilization in lactating dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 90:2960-2965. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2006-129
  108. Zagorska, J. and Ciprovica, I. 2005. The comparison of chemical pollution between organic and conventional milk. Pages 196-198 in Int. Sci. Conf. Proc., Univ of Agric., Latvia.
  109. Zagorska, J. and Ciprovica, I. 2008. The chemical composition of organic and conventional milk in Latvia. Proc. 3rd Baltic Conference on Food Science and Technology. (FOODBALT-2008). Latvia University of Agriculture Faculty of Food Technology. 10-14.
  110. Zalecka, A., Bugel, S., Paoletti, F., Kahl, J., Bonanno, A., Dostalova, A. and Rahmann, G. 2014. The influence of organic production on food quality-Research findings, gaps and future challenges. J. Sci. Food Agric. 94:2600-2604. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.6578