Korean Journal of Biological Psychiatry (생물정신의학)

The Korean Society of Biological Psychiatry (대한생물정신의학회)
권호 표지

The Effects of Horizontal Eye Movement on Mental Health Indices and Psychophysiological Activities in Healthy Subjects

  • Choi, Kyung-Mook (Department of Biomedical Science, The Catholic University of Korea College of Medicine) ;
  • Min, Jung-Ah (Department of Biomedical Science, The Catholic University of Korea College of Medicine) ;
  • Park, Gewn-Hi (Clinical Emotion and Cognition Research Laboratory) ;
  • Lee, Seung-Hwan (Clinical Emotion and Cognition Research Laboratory) ;
  • Chae, Jeong-Ho (Department of Biomedical Science, The Catholic University of Korea College of Medicine)
  • Received : 2011.04.28
  • Accepted : 2011.07.26
  • Published : 2011.08.31
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Objectives The eye movement (EM) has been reported to play a role in enhancing the retrieval of episodic memories and reducing effects of fearful episodes in the past and worries for the futures. However, it is still unclear in the mechanism of EM in normal subjects. We examined the horizontal eye movement (HEM) effect using an aiding apparatus on mental health indices including negative and positive psychological factors, and psychophysiological measures such as heart rate variability and quantitative electroencepaholography (qEEG) in healthy subjects. Methods Twenty eight healthy subjects were recruited and randomly allocated into two groups : active HEM group and control group. The active HEM group conducted the HEM training with usual stress management audio-intervention using the apparatus inducing eye movement once a day for 14 days. The control group also conducted the same training once a day for 14 days, however, the saccadic eye movement was not included in this training. Psychological measurements, neurocognitive function tests, heart rate variability measurement and qEEG were conducted before and after the training in both groups. Results In the active HEM group, sleep status using Sleep Quality Scale (SQS) positive factors significantly increased after the training. By contrast, scores on the negative items of Psychological Well-Being Scale (PWBS), and negative items of the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) were significantly decreased after the training. The percentage of delta amplitude (1-3 Hz) in qEEG significantly decreased after the HEM training. The percentage of alpha amplitude (8-12 Hz) significantly increased after HEM training. The change of delta amplitude in the active HEM group was positively correlated with the change of sleep satisfaction of Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), and the change of alpha amplitude was negatively correlated with depression of VAS, anxiety of VAS and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). Conclusions The HEM training improved sleep quality and well-being, and sense of optimism. The HEM training also increased alpha amplitude and decreased delta amplitude in qEEG. The qEEG changes were well correlated with subjective improvement of mental health indices in healthy subjects. These results suggest some evidences that HEM training using the apparatus that induces EM would be helpful in improving subjective mental health in healthy subjects. Further study with larger samples size would be needed.

Keywords

References

  1. Shapiro F. Efficacy of the eye movement desensitization procedure in the treatment of traumatic memories. J Trauma Stress 1989;2:199-223. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490020207
  2. Shapiro F. Eye movement desensitization: a new treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 1989;20:211-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7916(89)90025-6
  3. Bisson JI, Ehlers A, Matthews R, Pilling S, Richards D, Turner S. Psychological treatments for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2007;190:97-104. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.106.021402
  4. Bradley R, Greene J, Russ E, Dutra L, Westen D. A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:214-227. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.2.214
  5. Bae H, Kim D, Park YC. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for adolescent depression. Psychiatry Investig 2008;5:60-65. https://doi.org/10.4306/pi.2008.5.1.60
  6. Broad RD, Wheeler K. An adult with childhood medical trauma treated with psychoanalytic psychotherapy and EMDR: a case study. Perspect Psychiatr Care 2006;42:95-105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6163.2006.00058.x
  7. Twombly J. Incorporating EMDR and EMDR adaptations into the treatment of clients with dissociative identity disorder. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1:61-81. https://doi.org/10.1300/J229v01n02_05
  8. Twombly JH. EMDR for clients with dissociative identity disorder, DDNOS, and ego states. In: Shapiro R, editor. EMDR solutions: pathways to healing. New York: W. W. Norton;2005. p.88-120.
  9. Lavie P, Hefez A, Halperin G, Enoch D. Long-term effects of traumatic war-related events on sleep. Am J Psychiatry 1979;136:175-178. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.136.2.175
  10. Lansing K, Amen DG, Hanks C, Rudy L. High-resolution brain SPECT imaging and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in police officers with PTSD. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2005;17:526-32. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.17.4.526
  11. Letizia B, Andrea F, Paolo C. Neuroanatomical changes after eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2007;19:475-476. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.19.4.475
  12. Letizia B, Andrea F, Paolo C. What psychological testing and neuroimaging tell us about the treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder by Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing. J Anxiety Disord 1999;13:159-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(98)00045-0
  13. Nardo D, Hogberg G, Looi JC, Larsson S, Hallstrom T, Pagani M. Gray matter density in limbic and paralimbic cortices is associated with trauma load and EMDR outcome in PTSD patients. J Psychiatr Res 2010;44:477-485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.10.014
  14. Lamprecht F, Kohnke C, Lempa W, Sack M, Matzke M, Munte TF. Event-related potentials and EMDR treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Neurosci Res 2004;49:267-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2004.02.013
  15. Carrigan MH, Levis DJ. The contributions of eye movements to the efficacy of brief exposure treatment for reducing fear of public speaking. J Anxiety Disord 1999;13:101-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(98)00042-5
  16. Hyer L, Brandsma JM. EMDR minus eye movements equals good psychotherapy. J Trauma Stress 1997;10:515-522.
  17. van den Hout M, Muris P, Salemink E, Kindt M. Autobiographical memories become less vivid and emotional after eye movements. Br J Clin Psychol 2001;40:121-130. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466501163571
  18. Christman SD, Garvey KJ, Propper RE, Phaneuf KA. Bilateral eye movements enhance the retrieval of episodic memories. Neuropsychology 2003;17:221-229. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.17.2.221
  19. Parker A, Relph S, Dagnall N. Effects of bilateral eye movements on the retrieval of item, associative, and contextual information. Neuropsychology 2008;22:136-145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.22.1.136
  20. Engelhard IM, van den Hout MA, Janssen WC, van der Beek J. Eye movements reduce vividness and emotionality of "flashforwards". Behav Res Ther 2010;48:442-447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2010.01.003
  21. Gunter RW, Bodner GE. How eye movements affect unpleasant memories: support for a working-memory account. Behav Res Ther 2008;46:913-931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.04.006
  22. Parker A, Buckley S, Dagnall N. Reduced misinformation effects following saccadic bilateral eye movements. Brain Cogn 2009;69:89-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.05.009
  23. Kuiken D, Chudleigh M, Racher D. Bilateral eye movements, attentional flexibility and metaphor comprehension: The substrate of REM dreaming? Dreaming 2010;20:227-247. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020841
  24. Samara Z, Elzinga BM, Slagter HA, Nieuwenhuis S. Do Horizontal Saccadic Eye Movements Increase Interhemispheric Coherence? Investigation of a Hypothesized Neural Mechanism Underlying EMDR. Front Psychiatry 2011;2:4.
  25. Propper RE, Pierce J, Geisler MW, Christman SD, Bellorado N. Effect of bilateral eye movements on frontal interhemispheric gamma EEG coherence: implications for EMDR therapy. J Nerv Ment Dis 2007;195:785-788. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e318142cf73
  26. Armstrong MS, Vaughan K. An orienting response model of eye movement desensitization. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 1996;27:21-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7916(95)00056-9
  27. Sack M, Lempa W, Steinmetz A, Lamprecht F, Hofmann A. Alterations in autonomic tone during trauma exposure using eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR)--results of a preliminary investigation. J Anxiety Disord 2008;22:1264-1271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.01.007
  28. Barrowcliff AL, Gray NS, MacCulloch S, Freeman TC, MacCulloch MJ. Horizontal rhythmical eye movements consistently diminish the arousal provoked by auditory stimuli. Br J Clin Psychol 2003;42:289-302. https://doi.org/10.1348/01446650360703393
  29. Hedstrom J. A note on eye movements and relaxation. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 1991;22:37-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7916(91)90031-Y
  30. Wilson DL, Silver SM, Covi WG, Foster S. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: effectiveness and autonomic correlates. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 1996;27:219-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7916(96)00026-2
  31. MacCulloch MJ, Feldman P. Eye movement desensitisation treatment utilises the positive visceral element of the investigatory reflex to inhibit the memories of post-traumatic stress disorder: a theoretical analysis. Br J Psychiatry 1996;169:571-579. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.169.5.571
  32. Elofsson UO, von Scheele B, Theorell T, Sondergaard HP. Physiological correlates of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. J Anxiety Disord 2008;22:622-634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.05.012
  33. Hayes MHJ, Patterson DG. Experimental development of the graphic rating method. Psychol Bull 1921;18:98-113.
  34. Freyd M. The graphic rating scale. J Educ Psychol 1923;14:83-102. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0074329
  35. Lee Y, Song J. A study of the reliability and the validity of the BDI, SDS, and MMPI? D scales. Korean J Clin Psychol 1991;10:98-113.
  36. Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mock J, Erbaugh J. An inventory for measuring depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1961;4:561-571. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004
  37. Beck AT, Epstein N, Brown G, Steer RA. An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: psychometric properties. J Consult Clin Psychol 1988;56:893-897. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893
  38. Cohen S, Kamarck T, Mermelstein R. A global measure of perceived stress. J Health Soc Behav 1983;24:385-396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
  39. Park J, Seo YS. Validation of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) on samples of Korean university students. Korean J Psychol: General 2010;29:611-629.
  40. Koh KB, Park JK, Kim CH, Cho S. Development of the stress response inventory and its application in clinical practice. Psychosom Med 2001;63:668-678. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-200107000-00020
  41. Lee HH, Kim EJ, Lee MG. Brief Report: A Validation Study of Korea Positive and Negative Affect Schedule: The PANAS Scales. Korean J Clin Psychol 2003;22:935-946.
  42. Watson D, Clark LA, Tellegen A. Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. J Pers Soc Psychol 1988;54:1063-1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
  43. Yi H, Shin K, Kim J, Kim J, Lee J, Shin C. Validity and reliability of Sleep Quality Scale in subjects with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. J Psychosom Res 2009;66:85-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.07.008
  44. Yi H, Shin K, Shin C. Development of the sleep quality scale. J Sleep Res 2006;15:309-316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2006.00544.x
  45. Diener E, Emmons RA, Larsen RJ, Griffin S. The Satisfaction With Life Scale. J Pers Assess 1985;49:71-75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
  46. Ryff CD, Keyes CL. The structure of psychological well-being revisited. J Pers Soc Psychol 1995;69:719-727. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719
  47. Ryff CD, Singer B. Psychological well-being: meaning, measurement, and implications for psychotherapy research. Psychother Psychosom 1996;65:14-23. https://doi.org/10.1159/000289026
  48. Connor KM, Davidson JR. Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depress Anxiety 2003;18:76-82. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113
  49. Scheier MF, Carver CS, Bridges MW. Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): a reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. J Pers Soc Psychol 1994;67:1063-1078. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063
  50. Shin H, Lyu J, Lee M. Testing the one factor and two factor models of optimism and pessimism in Korean adolescents. Korean J School Psychol 2005;2:79-97.
  51. Mccullough ME, Emmons RA, Tsang JA. The grateful disposition: a conceptual and empirical topography. J Pers Soc Psychol 2002;82:112-127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.112
  52. Kwon SJ, Kim KH, Lee HS. Validation of the Korean version of gratitude questionaire. Korean J Health Psychol 2006;11:177-190.
  53. Svebak S. The development of the Sense of Humor Questionnaire: From SHQ to SHQ 6. Humor: Int J Humor Res 1996;9:341-361.
  54. Snyder CR, Sympson SC, Ybasco FC, Borders TF, Babyak MA, Higgins RL. Development and validation of the State Hope Scale. J Pers Soc Psychol 1996;70:321-335. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.321
  55. Peterman AH, Fitchett G, Brady MJ, Hernandez L, Cella D. Measuring spiritual well-being in people with cancer: the functional assessment of chronic illness therapy--Spiritual Well-being Scale (FACIT-Sp). Ann Behav Med 2002;24:49-58. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324796ABM2401_06
  56. Crumbaugh JC, Maholick LT. Manual of Instruction for the Purpose in Life Test. Munster: Psychometric Affiliates;1969.
  57. Kim HS, Jung SK, Ko Y, Song JW. Reliability & validity of Korean version of 'Purpose in Life test(PIL)' scale. J Korean Assoc Soc Psychiatry 2001;6:155-165.
  58. Thayer JF, Lane RD. A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. J Affect Disord 2000;61:201-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4
  59. Nielsen T. Affect desensitization: A possible function of REMs in both waking and sleeping states. Sleep Research 1991;20:10.
  60. Stickgold R. Sleep-dependent memory processing and EMDR action. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research 2008;2:289-299. https://doi.org/10.1891/1933-3196.2.4.289
  61. Carlson JG, Chemtob CM, Rusnak K, Hedlund NL, Muraoka MY. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EDMR) treatment for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 1998;11:3-24. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024448814268
  62. Rittenhouse J. Using eye movement desensitization and reprocessing to treat complex PTSD in a biracial client. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol 2000;6:399-408. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.6.4.399
  63. Hefez A, Metz L, Lavie P. Long-term effects of extreme situational stress on sleep and dreaming.? Am J Psychiatry 1987;144:344-347. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.144.3.344
  64. Ross RJ, Ball WA, Sullivan KA, Caroff SN. Sleep disturbance as the hallmark of posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1989;146:697-707. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.146.6.697
  65. Shapiro F. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols and procedures, 2nd ed. New York, Guilford Press;2001.
  66. Hu P, Stylos-Allan M, Walker MP. Sleep facilitates consolidation of emotional declarative memory. Psychol Sci 2006;17:891-898. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01799.x
  67. Yoo SS, Gujar N, Hu P, Jolesz FA, Walker MP. The human emotional brain without sleep--a prefrontal amygdala disconnect. Curr Biol 2007;17:R877-R878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.08.007
  68. Scheier MF, Carver CS, Bridges MW. Optimism, pessimism, and psychological well-being. In: Chang EC editor, Optimism & pessimism: implications for theory, research, and practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Assocaition;2002. p.189-217.
  69. Pae JS, Kwon JS, Youn T, Park HJ, Kim MS, Lee B, et al. LORETA imaging of P300 in schizophrenia with individual MRI and 128-channel EEG. Neuroimage 2003;20:1552-1560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.08.001
  70. Pizzagalli D, Pascual-Marqui RD, Nitschke JB, Oakes TR, Larson CL, Abercrombie HC, et al. Anterior cingulate activity as a predictor of degree of treatment response in major depression: evidence from brain electrical tomography analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:405-415. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.3.405
  71. Pizzagalli DA, Oakes TR, Fox AS, Chung MK, Larson CL, Abercrombie HC, et al. Functional but not structural subgenual prefrontal cortex abnormalities in melancholia. Mol Psychiatry 2004;9:325, 393-405. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001469
  72. Schurmann M, Basar E. Functional aspects of alpha oscillations in the EEG. Int J Psychophysiol 2001;39:151-158. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8760(00)00138-0
  73. Martindale C, Hasenfus N. EEG differences as a function of creativity, stage of the creative process, and effort to be original. Biol Psychol 1978;6:157-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-0511(78)90018-2
  74. Heilman, KM. Creativity and the brain. Psychology Press: New York;2005.
  75. Cai DJ, Mednick SA, Harrison EM, Kanady JC, Mednick SC. REM, not incubation, improves creativity by priming associative networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009;106:10130-10134. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0900271106
  76. Shapiro F. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing procedure: From EMD to EMDR: A new treatment model for anxiety and related traumata. Behavior Therapist 1991;14:133-135.
  77. Shapiro F. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: A new treatment for anxiety and related trauma. In: Lee Hyer editor, Trauma Victim: Theoretical and Practical Suggestions Muncie, Indiana: Accelerated Development Publishers;1994. p.501-521.
  78. Walker MP, Stickgold R. Sleep, memory, and plasticity. Annu Rev Psychol 2006;57:139-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070307
  79. Levin R, Nielsen TA. Nightmares, bad dreams, and emotion dysregulation. A review and new neurocognitive model of dreaming. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 2009;18:84-88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01614.x
  80. Walker MP, van der Helm E. Overnight therapy? The role of sleep in emotional brain processing. Psychol Bull 2009;135:731-748. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016570