Winterkill and Strategy of Golf Course Management: A Review

동절기 피해의 이해와 겨울철 골프장 관리: 리뷰

  • Received : 2011.11.20
  • Accepted : 2011.12.05
  • Published : 2011.12.31

Abstract

Winterkill can be defined as any injury including freeze stress kill, winter desiccation, and low temperature disease to turfgrass plants that occurs during the winter period. The major damages from winterkill were low temperature kill, crown hydration, and winter desiccation. Low temperature kill is caused by air and soil temperature. Soil temperature affect more severe to turfgrass than air temperature because low soil temperature cause fetal damage to turfgrass crown. Crown hydration is a form of winter injury in which intercellular water within the plant freezes and causes physical injury to the cell membrane and wall. This is eventually resulted in dehydration of cell. Winter desiccation is the death of leaves or whole plants due to drought during the winter period. To reduce winterkill damage, cultivar selection is very important. If changing cultivar is not allowed, cold temperature hardiness needs to be increased by providing nutrients especially phosphorus and potassium in the late fall. Turf cover is effective way to reduce winterkill damage. Remaining snow is positive process to reduce winterkill damage by insulating soil temperature. The previous researches reported many materials as turf cover such as straw, polypropylene, polyester, and wood mat. Aeration and topdressing is one of the process against winterkill. Both methods are mainly conducted to reduce thickness of thatch layer. In recent, relatively new materials called black or winter topdressing sand are used to protect soil temperature from low air temperature and thaw ice crystal that may remain in soil.

동절기 피해는 겨울철에 나타나는 피해의 형태로 유형에 따라 저온피해, 건조피해, 관부수화, 그리고 동절기 병 발생등이 있다. 저온피해는 대기온도와 토양온도에 의해 그 피해가 발생하는데 토양온도가 관부의 생육에 더 큰 영향을 미치기 때문에 그 피해의 정도가 더 심하게 발생한다. 관부수화는 세포내결빙에 의해 발생하는 피해로 세포막을 파괴하며 결과적으로 세포내 조직을 탈수시키게 된다. 저온건조는 동절기 기간동안 식물체의 잎 혹은 식물전체에 건조로 인한 피해가 나타나 고사에 이르게 되는 피해를 말한다. 동절기 피해를 예방하기 위해 가을철 인산과 칼륨의 시비가 동절기 피해에 대한 내성을 증진시키는 역할을 하게 된다. 또한 피복재의 사용이 동절기 피해를 최소화 하는 기능을 하는데 그 종류는 여러가지가 있으며 겨울철 잔디위에 쌓인 눈도 대기온도로부터 토양온도를 유지하는 피복재 역할을 하게 된다. 동절기 피해를 최소화 하기 위한 방법으로 통기와 배토의 방법이 있다. 통기와 배토는 모두 주로 대취층의 두께를 줄이기 위한 방법으로 사용이 되고 또한 겨울철 배토를 위해 사용되는 검은색 모래는 토양에 잔존해 있는 얼음을 녹이고 토양온도를 유지해주는 역할을 하게 되므로 피복재와 같이 동절기 피해를 최소화 하는 역할을 하게 된다.

Keywords

References

  1. Anderson, J., C. Taliaferro, and D. Martin. 2003. Longer exposure durations increase freeze damage to turf bermudagrasses. Crop Sci. 43:973-77. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2003.0973
  2. Breard, J.B. 2005. Beard's turfgrass encyclopedia for golf courses, grounds, lawns, and sports fields. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing, MI.
  3. Breard, J.B. 2002. Turf management for golf courses. Ann Arbor Press. Chelsea, MI. p. 450.
  4. Beard, J.B. 1998. Winter ice cover problems? TURFAX. 9(1):1-25.
  5. Breard, J.B. 1973. Turfgrass: Science and culture. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. p. 130.
  6. Christians, N.E. 2011. Fundamentals of turfgrass management. 4th ed. Wiley & Sons Inc. Hoboken, NJ. p. 380.
  7. Dionne, J.P. 2000. Winter protection of annual bluegrass golf greens. USGA Green Section Record, September/October 2000. pp. 40-45.
  8. Dionne, J., P. Dube, M. Laganiere, and Y. Des- jardins. 1999. Golf green soil and crown-level temperatures under winter protective covers. Agron. J. 91:227-233. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1999.00021962009100020009x
  9. Frank. K.W. 2009. A winter's tale: winterkill cause and recovery strategies. Golfmaster. January/February 2009. pp. 24-32.
  10. Fry, J. and B. Huankg. 2004. Applied turfgrass science and physiology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. p. 480.
  11. Hamilton. G. 2003. Field Research Trials Results. p. 32.
  12. Happ. K. 2004. Winter damage. USGA Green Section Record, November/December 2004. p. 46-50
  13. Johnson, W.J. and C.T. Golob. 1997. Using a turf cover in combination with winter applied plant growth regulators on putting greens. Int. Turf. Soc. Res. J. 8:477-483.
  14. NTEP. 2010. National Creeping bentgrass Test [Online]. Available at www.ntep.org. NTEP, Beltsville, MD.
  15. Roberts, J.M. 1986. Influence of protective covers on reducing winter desiccation on turf. Agron. J. 78:145-147. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1986.00021962007800010029x
  16. Roberts, J.M. 1993. Understanding crown hydration damage. Golf Course Management. October 2004.
  17. Roberts, J.M. 1993. New Hampshire Turf Talk. Winter injury update. pp. 4-6.
  18. Tapp, L., A.J. Powell, Jr., and A. Richardson. 1988. Bermudagrass winter management study. Ky. Turf. Res. Progr. Rpt. 319:55-61.
  19. Tompkins, D.K., C. Budar, E. Totoews, and J. Ross. 1995. Prairie Turfgrass Research Centre Annual Report. pp.22-31.
  20. Tompkins, D.K., J.B. Ross, and D.L. Moroz. 2000. Dehardening of annual bluegrass and creeping bentgrass during late winter and early spring. Agron. J. 92:5-9. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2000.9215
  21. Vavrek, R.C. 1994. Have an "Ice" day. USGA Green Section Record, May/June 1994. pp. 13-21.
  22. Woods, M. 2004. Commentary, Q&A: Water-based extraction methods for turf soils. TurfNet Monthly. 11(5): 8-9.
  23. Zontek, S.J. 2010. Winterkill: Preventing winter injury and speeding recovery when damage occurs. USGA Green Section Bulletin, October 2010. pp. 68-72.