References
- Perry, V. H. and Gordon, S. S. (1988) Macrophages and microglia in the nervous system. Trends Neurosci. 11, 273-277 https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-2236(88)90110-5
- Van Rossum, D. and Hanisch, U. K. (2004) Microglia. Metab. Brain Dis. 19, 393-411 https://doi.org/10.1023/B:MEBR.0000043984.73063.d8
- Liu, B. and Hong, J. S. (2003) Role of microglia in inflammation-mediated neurodegenerative diseases: mechanisms and strategies for therapeutic intervention. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 304, 1-7 https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.102.035048
- Aloisi, F. (2001) Immune function of microglia. Glia. 36, 165-179 https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.1106
- Tomimoto, H., Akiguchi, I., Wakita, H., Lin, J. X. and Budka, H. (2000) Cyclooxygenase-2 is induced in microglia during chronic cerebral ischemia in humans. Acta. Neuropathol. 99, 26-30 https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00007402
- Muzio, L., Martino, G. and Furlan, R. (1997) Multifaceted aspects of inflammation in multiple sclerosis: the role of microglia. J. Neuroimmunol. 191, 39-44 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.09.016
- Liberatore, G. T., Jackson-Lewis, V., Vukosavic, S., Mandir, A. S., Vila, M., McAuliffe, W. G., Dawson, V. L., Dawson, T. M. and Przedborski, S. (1999) Inducible nitric oxide synthase stimulates dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the MPTP model of Parkinson disease. Nat. Med. 5, 1403-1409 https://doi.org/10.1038/70978
- Ryu, J. Y., Min, K. J., Rhim, T. Y., Kim, T. H., Pyo, H. K., Jin, B. K., Kim, S. U., Jou, I., Kim, S. S. and Joe, E. H. (2002) Prothrombin kringle-2 activates cultured rat brain microglia. J. Immunol. 168, 5805-5810 https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.168.11.5805
- Hwang, H. S. and Kim, S. S. (2005) The human prothrombin kringle-2 derived peptide, NSA9, is internalized into bovine capillary endothelial cells through endocytosis and energy-dependent pathways. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 335, 469-476 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.07.090
- Hwang, H. S., Kim, D. W. and Kim, S. S. (2006) Structureactivity relationships of the human prothrombin kringle-2 peptide derivative NSA9: anti-proliferative activity and cellular internalization. Biochem. J. 395, 165-172 https://doi.org/10.1042/BJ20051300
- Kim, J. Y., Kim, T. H. and Kim, S. S. (2008) Anti-inflammatory effect of a human prothrombin fragment-2-derived peptide, NSA9, in EOC2 microglia. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 368, 779-785 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.01.142
- Koistinaho, M. and Koistinaho, J. (2002) Role of p38 and p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinases in microglia. Glia. 40, 175-183 https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.10151
- Dringen, R. (2005) Oxidative and antioxidative potential of brain microglial cells. Antioxid. Redox. Signal. 7, 1223-1233 https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2005.7.1223
- Klosterhalfen, B., Hauptmann, S., Offner, E. A., Amo-Takyi, B., Tons, C., Winkeltau, G., Affify, M., Kupper, W., Kirkpatrick, C. J. and Mittermayer, C. (1997) Induction of heat shock protein 70 by zinc-bis-(DL-hydrogenaspartate) reduces cytokine liberation, apoptosis, and mortality rate in a rat model of LD100 endotoxiemia. Shock 7, 254-262 https://doi.org/10.1097/00024382-199704000-00003
- Carrillo-Vico, A., Lardone, P. J., Naji, I., Fernandez-Santos, J. M., Martin-Lacave, I., Guerrero, J. M. and Calvo, J. R. (2005) Beneficial pleiotropic actions of melatonin in an experimental model of septic shock in mice: regulation of pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokine network, protection against oxidative damage and anti-apoptic effects. J. Pineal. Res. 39, 400-408 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-079X.2005.00265.x
- Paresce, D. M., Chung, H. and Maxfield, F. R. (1997) Slow degradation of aggregates of the Alzheimer’s disease amyloid beta-protein by microglial cells. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 29390-29397 https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.272.46.29390
- Iadecola, C., Zhang, F., Xu, S., Casey, R. and Ross, M. E. (1995) Inducible nitric oxide synthase gene expression in brain following cerebral ischemia. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 15, 378-384 https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.1995.47
- Chesrown, S. E., Monnier, J., Visner, G. and Nick, H. S. (1994) Regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA levels by LPS, IFN-gamma, TGF-beta, and IL-10 in murine macrophage cell lines and rat peritoneal macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 200, 126-134 https://doi.org/10.1006/bbrc.1994.1424
- Hobbs, A. J., Higgs, A. and Moncada, S. (1999) Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase as a potential therapeutic target. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 39, 191-220 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.39.1.191
-
Ryu, J., Pyo, H., Jou, I. and Joe, E. (2000) Thrombin induces NO release from cultured rat microglia via protein kinase C, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and NF-
$\kappa$ B. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 29955-29959 https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M001220200 - Fiebich, B. L., Butcher, R. D. and Gebicke-Haerter, P. J. (1998) Protein kinase C-mediated regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in cultured microglial cells. J. Neuroimmunol. 92, 170-178 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-5728(98)00201-X
- Giulian, D., Li, J., Li, X., George, J. and Rutecki, P. A. (1994) The impact of microglia-derived cytokines upon gliosis in the CNS. Dev. Neurosci. 16, 128-136 https://doi.org/10.1159/000112099
- Illes, P., Norenberg, W. and Gevicke-Haerter, P. J. (1996) Molecular mechanisms of microglial activation, B. Voltage- and purinoceptor-operated channels in microglia. Neurochem. Int. 29, 13-24 https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-0186(95)00133-6
- Park, K. W., Lee, H. G., Jin, B. K. and Lee, Y. B. (2007) Interleukin-10 endogenously expressed in microglia prevents lipopolysaccharide-induced neurodegeneration in the rat cerebral cortex in vivo. Exp. Mol. Med. 39, 812-819 https://doi.org/10.1038/emm.2007.88
- Dings, R. P. M., Nesmelova, I., Griffioen, A. W. and Mayo, K. H. (2003) Discovery and development of anti-angiogenic peptides: a structural link. Angiogenesis 6, 83-91 https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AGEN.0000011730.94233.06
- Goodnow, C. C. (2002) Multistep pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. Cell 130, 25-35 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2007.06.033
- Gonzalez-Rey, E. and Delgado, M. (2008) Vasoactive intestinal peptide inhibits cyclooxygenase-2 expression in activated macrophages, microglia and dendritic cells. Brain Behav. Immun. 22, 35-41
- Gutierrez-canas, I., Juarranz, Y., Santiago, B., Martinez, C., Gomariz, R. P., Pablos, J. L. and Leceta, J. (2008) Immunoregulatory properties of vasoactive intestinal peptide in human T cell subsets: implications for rheumatoid arthritis. Brain Behav. Immun. 22, 312-317 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2007.09.007
- Taylor, A. W. and Kitaichi, N. (2008) The diminishment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) by neuropeptide alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (a-MSH) therapy. Brain Behav. Immun. 22, 639-646 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2007.11.001
-
Colombo, G., Sordi, A., Lonati, C., Carlin, A., Turcatti, F., Leonardi, P., Gatti, S. and Catania, A. (2008) Treatment with
$\alpha$ -melanocyte stimulating hormone preserves calcium regulatory proteins in rat heart allografts. Brain Behav. Immun. 22, 817-823 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2007.11.009 - Anton, B., Leff, P., Calva, J. C., Acevedo, R., Salazar, A., Matus, M., Pavon, L., Martinez, M., Meissier, J. J., Adler, M. W., Gaugha, J. P. and Eisenstein, T. K. (2008) Endomorphin 1 and endorphin 2 suppress in vitro antibody formation at ultra-low concentrations: anti-peptide antibodies but not ipoid antagonists block the activity. Brain Behav. Immun. 22, 824-832 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2008.02.004
- Varela, N., Chorny, A., Gonzalez-Rey, E. and Delgado, M. (2007) Tuning inflammation with anti-inflammatory neuropeptides. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 7, 461-478 https://doi.org/10.1517/14712598.7.4.461