Antiretroviral Therapy 2006: Pharmacology, Applications, and Special Situations

  • Samuel, Rafik (Section of Infectious Diseases, Temple University School of Medicine) ;
  • Bettiker, Robert (Section of Infectious Diseases, Temple University School of Medicine) ;
  • Suh, Byung-Se (Section of Infectious Diseases, Temple University School of Medicine)
  • Published : 2006.06.01

Abstract

As we approach the completion of the first 25 years of the human immunodeficiency virus(HIV) epidemic, there have been dramatic improvements in the care of patients with HIV infection. These have prolonged life and decreased morbidity. There are twenty currently available antiretrovirals approved in the United States for the treatment of this infection. The medications, including their pharmacokinetic properties, side effects, and dosing are reviewed. In addition, the current approach to the use of these medicines is discussed. We have included a section addressing common comorbid conditions including hepatitis B and C along with tuberculosis.

Keywords

References

  1. Aarnoutse, R. E., Grintjes, K. J., Telgt, D. S., Stek, M., Hugen, P. W., Reiss, P., Koopmans, P. P., Hekster, Y.A., and Burger, D. M., The influence of efavirenz on the pharmacokinetics of a twice-daily combination of indinavir and low-dose ritonavir in healthy volunteers. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 71, 57-67 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1067/mcp.2002.121424
  2. Acosta, E. P., Page, L. M., and Fletcher, C. V., Clinical pharmacokinetics of zidovudine. Clin. Pharmacokinet., 30, 251-262 (1996) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-199630040-00001
  3. Adkins, J. C. and Noble, S., Efavirenz. Drugs, 56, 1055-1064 (1998) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199856060-00014
  4. Alberti, A., Clumeck, N., Collins, S., Gerlich, W., Lundgren, J., Palu, G., Reiss, P., Thiebaut, R., Weiland, O., Yazdanpanah, Y., and Zeuzem, S., Short statement of the first European Consensus Conference on the treatment of chronic hepatitis B and C in HIV co-infected patients. J. Hepatol., 42, 615-624 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2005.03.003
  5. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee Opinion. Scheduled cesarean delivery and the prevention of vertical transmission of HIV infection. Number 234. Washington DC: The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, May (2000)
  6. Antoniou, T. and Tseng, A. L., Interactions between recreational drugs and antiretroviral agents. Ann. Pharmacother., 36, 1598-1613 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1345/aph.1A447
  7. Arvieux, C. and Tribut, O., Amprenavir or fosamprenavir plus ritonavir in HIV infection: pharmacology, efficacy and tolerability profile. Drugs, 65, 633-659 (2005) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200565050-00005
  8. Bartlett, J. A., Zalcitabine, p. 49-59. In Dolin R, Masur H, and Saag MS (ed), AIDS Therapy. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, (1999)
  9. Baxter, J. D., Mayers, D. L., Wentworth, D. N., Neaton, J. D., Hoover, M. L., Winters, M. A., Mannheimer, S. B., Thompson, M. A., Abrams, D. I., Brizz, B. J., Ioannidis, J. P., and Merigan, T. C., A randomized study of antiretroviral management based on plasma genotypic antiretroviral resistance testing in patients failing therapy. CPCRA 046 Study Team for the Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. AIDS., 14, F83-93 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200006160-00001
  10. Benhamou, Y., Bochet, M., Thibault, V., Di Martino, V., Caumes, E., Bricaire, F., Opolon, P., Katlama, C., and Poynard T., Long-term incidence of hepatitis B virus resistance to lamivudine in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Hepatology, 30, 1302-1306 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.510300525
  11. Benhamou, Y., Bochet, M., Thibault, V., Calvez, V., Fievet, M. H., Vig, P., Gibbs, C. S., Brosgart, C., Fry, J., Namini, H., Katlama, C., and Poynard T., Safety and efficacy of adefovir dipivoxil in patients co-infected with HIV-1 and lamivudineresistant hepatitis B virus: an open-label pilot study. Lancet., 358, 718-723 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05840-8
  12. Benhamou, Y., Tubiana, R., and Thibault, V., Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in patients with HIV and lamivudineresistant hepatitis B virus. N. Engl. J. Med., 348, 177-178 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200301093480218
  13. Bergshoeff, A., Burger, D., Verweij, C., Farrelly, L., Flynn, J., Le Prevost, M., Walker, S., Novelli, V., Lyall, H., Khoo, S., and Gibb, D., for the PENTA-13 Study Group. Plasma pharmacokinetics of once-versus twice-daily lamivudine and abacavir: simplification of combination treatment in HIV-1- infected children (PENTA-13). Antivir. Ther., 10, 239-246 (2005)
  14. Bodsworth, N. J., Cooper, D. A., and Donovan B., The influence of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection on the development of the hepatitis B virus carrier state. J. Infect. Dis., 163, 1138-1140 (1991) https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/163.5.1138
  15. Bonacini, M., Lin, H. J., and Hollinger, F. B., Effect of coexisting HIV-1 infection on the diagnosis and evaluation of hepatitis C virus. J. AIDS., 26, 340-344 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1097/00126334-200104010-00008
  16. Bonnet, F., Bonarek, M., Morlat, P., Mercie, P., Dupon, M., Gemain, M. C., Malvy, D., Bernard, N., Pellegrin, J. L., and Beylot, J., Risk factors for lactic acidosis in HIV-infected patients treated with nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors: a case-control study. Clin. Infect. Dis., 36, 1324- 1328 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1086/374601
  17. Bossi, P., Colin, D., Bricaire, F., and Caumes, E., Hypersensitivity syndrome associated with efavirenz therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis., 30, 227-228 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1086/313629
  18. Bozzette, S. A., Ake, C. F., Tam, H. K., Chang, S. W., and Louis, T. A., Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events in patients treated for human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med., 348, 702-710 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa022048
  19. Brinkman, K., ter Hofstede, H. J. M., Burger, D. M., Smeitink, J. A., and Koopmans, P. P., Adverse effects of reverse transcriptase inhibitors: mitochondrial toxicity as common pathway. AIDS., 12, 1735-1744 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199814000-00004
  20. Bristol-Myers Squibb. Important drug warning: January 5, 2001. Rockville, Md.: Food and Drug Administration, 2001. (Accessed February 15 2006, at http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/safety/ 2001/zerit&videx_letter.htm
  21. Brook, M. G., McDonald, J. A., Karayiannis, P., Caruso, L., Forster, G., Harris, J. R., and Thomas, H. C., Randomised controlled trial of interferon alfa 2A (rbe) (Roferon-A) for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection: factors that influence response. Gut., 30, 1116-1122 (1989) https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.30.8.1116
  22. Brunelle, M. N., Jacquard, A. C., Pichoud, C., Durantel, D., Carrouee-Durantel, S., Villeneuve, J. P., Trepo, C., and Zoulim, F., Susceptibility to antivirals of a human HBV strain with mutations conferring resistance to both lamivudine and adefovir. Hepatology, 41, 1391-1398 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.20723
  23. Buti, M. and Esteban, R. Drugs in Development for Hepatitis B. Drugs., 65, 1451-1460 (2005) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200565110-00001
  24. CDC. Antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection-drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV in the United States. Recommendations from the US Department of Health and Human Services. MMWR, 54, RR- 2 (2005)
  25. CDC. Treating Opportunistic Infections among HIV-infected adults and adolescents. Recommendations from the CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association/Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR, 53, RR-15 (2004)
  26. CDC. Updated US Public health service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. MMWR, 54, RR-9 (2005)
  27. Cameron, D. W., Japour, A. J., Xu, Y., Hsu, A., Mellors, J., Farthing, C., Cohen, C., Poretz, D., Markowitz, M., Follansbee, S., Angel, J. B., McMahon, D., Ho, D., Devanarayan, V., Rode, R., Salgo, M., Kempf, D. J., Granneman, R., Leonard, J. M., and Sun, E., Ritonavir and saquinavir combination therapy for the treatment of HIV infection. AIDS., 13, 213-224 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199902040-00009
  28. Campo, R. E., Lalanne, R., Tanner, T. J., Jayaweera, D. T., Rodriguez, A. E., Fontaine, L., and Kolber, M. A., Lopinavir/ ritonavir maintenance monotherapy after successful viral suppression with standard highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS., 19, 447-449 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000161777.38438.ed
  29. Carr, A., Samaras, K. Chisholm, D. J., and Cooper, D. A., Pathogenesis of HIV-1 protease inhibitor-associated peripheral lipodystrophy, hyperlipidemia, and insulin resistance. Lancet., 352, 1881-1883 (1998)
  30. Cervia, J. S. and Smith, M. A., Enfuvirtide (T-20): A novel human immunodeficiency virus type 1 fusion inhibitor. Clin. Infect. Dis., 37, 1102-1106 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1086/378302
  31. Chamot, E., Hirschel, B., Wintsch, J., Robert, C. F., Gabriel, V., Deglon, J. J., Yerly, S., and Perrin, L., Loss of antibodies against hepatitis C virus in HIV-seropositive intravenous drug users. AIDS., 4, 1275-1277 (1990) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199012000-00016
  32. Chapman, T. M., Plosker, G. L., and Perry, C. M., Fosamprenavir: a review of its use in the management of antiretroviral therapy-naive patients with HIV infection. Drugs., 64, 2101- 2124 (2004) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200464180-00014
  33. Clavel, F. and Hance, A. J., HIV Drug Resistance. N. Engl. J. Med., 350, 1023-1035 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM2ra025195
  34. Clevenbergh, P., Corcostegui, M., Gerard, D., Hieronimus, S., Mondain, V., Chichmanian, R. M., Sadoul, J. L., and Dellamonica, P., Iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome in an HIVinfected patient treated with inhaled corticosteroids (fluticasone propionate) and low dose ritonavir enhanced PI containing regimen. J. Infection., 44, 194-195 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1053/jinf.2001.0928
  35. Cohen, C. J., Hunt, S., Sension, M., Farthing, C., Conant, M., Jacobson, S., Nadler, J., Verbiest, W., Hertogs, K., Ames, M., Rinehart, A. R., Graham, N. M., and the VIRA3001 Study Team. A randomized trial assessing the impact of phenotypic resistance testing on antiretroviral therapy. AIDS., 16, 579- 588 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200203080-00009
  36. Colfax, G. N., Buchbinder, S. P., Corneliss, P. G., Vittinghoff, E., Mayer, K., and Celum, C., Sexual risk behaviors and implications for secondary HIV transmission during and after HIV seroconversion. AIDS., 16, 1529-1535 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200207260-00010
  37. Colin, J. F., Cazals-Hatem, D., Loriot, M. A., Martinot-Peignoux, M., Pham, B. N., Auperin, A., Degott, C., Benhamou, J. P., Erlinger, S., Valla, D., and Marcellin P. Influence of human immunodeficiency virus infection on chronic hepatitis B in homosexual men. Hepatology, 29, 1306-1310 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.510290447
  38. Collier, A. C., Coombs, R. W., Schoenffeld, D. A., Bassett, R. L., Timpone, J., Baruch, A., Jones, M., Facey, K., Whitacre, C., McAuliffe, V. J., Friedman, H. M., Merigan, T. C., Reichman, R. C., Hooper, C., and Corey, L., Treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infection with saquinavir, zidovudine, and zalcitabine. N. Engl. J. Med., 334, 1011-1017 (1996) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199604183341602
  39. Connor, E. M., Sperling, R. S., Gelber, R., and Kiselev, P., Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. N. Engl. J. Med., 331, 1173-1180 (1994) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199411033311801
  40. Cooper, C. L., van Heeswijk, R. P. G., Gallicano, K., and Cameron, D. W., A Review of Low-Dose Ritonavir in Protease Inhibitor Combination Therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis., 36, 1585-1592 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1086/375233
  41. Cooper, E. R., Charurat, M., Mofenson, L., Hanson, I. C., Pitt, J., Diaz, C., Hayani, K., Handelsman, E., Smeriglio, V., Hoff, R., Blattner, W., and the Women and Infants' Transmission Study Group. Combination antiretroviral strategies for the treatment of pregnant HIV-1 infected women and prevention of perinatal HIV-1 transmission. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr., 29, 484-494 (2002)
  42. Croom, K. F. and Keam, S. J., Tipranavir, A ritonavir boosted protease inhibitor. Drug, 65, 1669-1677 (2005) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200565120-00005
  43. D'Aquila, R. M., Hughes, M. D., Johnson, V. A., Fischl, M. A., Sommadossi, J. P., Liou, S. -H., Timpone, J., Myers, M., Basgoz, N., Niu, M., and Hirsch, M. S., Nevirapine, zidovudine, and didanosine compared with zidovudine and didanosine in patients with HIV-1 infection. Ann. Intern. Med., 124, 1019- 1030 (1996) https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-124-12-199606150-00001
  44. Darby, S. C., Ewart, D. W., Giangrande, P. L., Spooner, R. J., Rizza, C. R., Dusheiko, G. M., Lee, C. A., Ludlam, C. A., and Preston, F. E., Mortality from liver cancer and liver disease in haemophilic men and boys in UK given blood products contaminated with hepatitis C. UK Haemophilia Centre Directors' Organisation. Lancet., 350, 1425-1431 (1997) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(97)05413-5
  45. Deeks, S. G., Wrin, T., Liegler, T., Hoh, R., Hayden, M., Barbour, J. D., Hellmann, N. S., Petropoulos, C. J., McCune, J. M., Hellerstein, M. K., and Grant, R. M., Virologic and immunologic consequences of discontinuing combination antiretroviraldrug therapy in HIV-infected patients with detectable viremia. N. Engl. J. Med., 344, 472-480 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200102153440702
  46. de Franchis, R., Hadengue, A., Lau, G., Lavanchy, D., Lok, A., McIntyre, N., Mele, A., Paumgartner, G., Pietrangelo, A., Rodes, J., Rosenberg, W., Valla, D., and the EASL Jury. EASL International Consensus Conference on Hepatitis B. 13-14 September, 2002 Geneva, Switzerland. Consensus statement (long version). J. Hepatol., 39 (Suppl 1), S3-25 (2003)
  47. Demeter, L. M. and Reichman, R. C., Delavirdine, p 97-105. In Dolin R, Masur H, and Saag MS (ed), AIDS Therapy. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia. (1999)
  48. den Brinker, M., Wit, F. W., Wertheim-van Dillen, P. M., Jurriaans, S., Weel, J., van Leeuwen, R., Pakker, N. G., Reiss, P., Danner, S. A., Weverling, G. J., and Lange, J. M., Hepatitis B and C virus co-infection and the risk for hepatotoxicity of highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1 infection. AIDS., 14, 2895-2902 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200012220-00011
  49. Detels, R., Munoz, A., McFarlane, G., Kingsley, L. A., Margolick, J. B., Giorgi, J., Schrager, L. K., and Phair, J. P., Effectiveness of potent antiretroviral therapy on time to AIDS and death in men with known HIV infection duration. JAMA., 280, 1497- 1503 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.17.1497
  50. Dickover, R. E., Garratty, E. M., Herman, S. A., Sim, M. S., Plaeger, S., Boyer, P. J., Keller, M., Deveikis, A., Stiehm, E. R., and Bryson, Y. J., Identification of levels of maternal HIV-1 RNA associated with risk of perinatal transmission: effect of maternal zidovudine treatment on viral load. JAMA., 275, 599-605 (1996) https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.275.8.599
  51. di Martino, V., Lunel, F., Cadranel, J. F., Hoang, C., Parlier, Y., Le Charpentier, Y., and Opolon, P., Long-term effects of interferon-alpha in five HIV-positive patients with chronic hepatitis B. J. Vir. Hepat., 3, 253-260 (1996) https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2893.1996.tb00051.x
  52. Di Martino, V., Thevenot, T., Boyer, N., Degos, F., and Marcellin, P., Serum alanine transaminase level is a good predictor of response to interferon alfa therapy for chronic hepatitis B in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Hepatology, 31, 1030-1031 (2000)
  53. Di Martino, V., Rufat, P., Boyer, N., Renard, P., Degos, F., Martinot-Peignoux, M., Matheron, S., Le Moing,V., Vachon, F., Degott, C., Valla, D., and Marcellin, P. The influence of human immunodeficiency virus coinfection on chronic hepatitis C in injection drug users: a long-term retrospective cohort study. Hepatology, 34, 1193-1199 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1053/jhep.2001.29201
  54. Di Martino, V., Thevenot, T., Colin, J. F., Boyer, N., Martinot, M., Degos, F., Coulaud, J. P., Vilde, J. L., Vachon, F., Degott, C., Valla, D., and Marcellin, P., Influence of HIV infection on the response to interferon therapy and the long-term outcome of chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology, 123, 1812-1822 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1053/gast.2002.37061
  55. Dore, G. J., Cooper, D. A., Barrett, C., Goh, L. E., Thakrar, B., and Atkins, M., Dual efficacy of lamivudine treatment in human immunodeficiency virus/hepatitis B virus-coinfected persons in a randomized, controlled study (CAESAR). The CAESAR Coordinating Committee. J. Infect. Dis., 180, 607- 613 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1086/314942
  56. Dorenbaum, A., Cunningham, C. K., Gelber, R. D., Culnane, M., Mofenson, L., Britto, P., Rekacewicz, C., Newell, M. L., Delfraissy, J. F., Cunningham-Schrader, B., Mirochnick, M., Sullivan, J. L., and the International PACTG 316 Team. Twodose-- intrapartum/newborn nevirapine and standard antiretroviral therapy to reduce perinatal HIV-1 transmission: a randomized trial. JAMA., 288, 189-198 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.2.189
  57. Doyon, L., Croteau, G., Thibeault, D., Poulin, F., Pilote, L., and Lamarre, D., Second locus involved in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 resistance to protease inhibitors. J. Virol., 70, 3763-3769 (1996)
  58. Dragsted, U. B., Gerstoft, J., Pedersen, C., Peters, B., Duran, A., Obel, N., Castagna, A., Cahn, P., Clumeck, N., Bruun, J. N., Benetucci, J., Hill, A., Cassetti, I., Vernazza, P., Youle, M., Fox, Z., Lundgren, J. D., and the MaxCmin1 Trial Group. Randomized trial to evaluate indinavir/ritonavir versus saquinavir/ritonavir in human immunodeficiency virus type 1- infected patients: the MaxCmin1 Trial. J. Infect. Dis., 188, 635-642 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1086/377288
  59. Dube, M. P., Disorders of glucose metabolism in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin. Infect. Dis., 31, 1467-1475 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1086/317491
  60. Dube, M. P. and Sattler, F. R., Metabolic complications of antiretroviral therapies. AIDS Clin. Care., 10, 41-44 (1998)
  61. Dube, M. P., Stein, J. H., Aberg, J. A., Fichtenbaum, C. J., Gerber, J. G., Tashima, K. T., Henry, W. K., Currier, J. S., Sprecher, D., and Glesby, M. J., Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group Cardiovascular Subcommittee. HIV Medical Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of dyslipidemia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults receiving antiretroviral therapy: recommendations of the HIV Medical Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America and the Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Clin. Infect. Dis., 37, 613-627 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1086/378131
  62. Durant, J., Clevenbergh, P., Halfon, P., Delgiudice, P., Porsin, S., Simonet, P., Montagne, N., Boucher, C. A., Schapiro, J. M., and Dellamonica, P., Drug-resistance genotyping in HIV- 1 therapy: the VIRADAPT randomised controlled trial. Lancet., 353, 2195-2199 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)12291-2
  63. Dybul, M., Fauci, A. S., Bartlett, J. G., Kaplan, J. E., and Pau, A. K., Guidelines for Using Antiretroviral Agents Among HIVInfected Adults and Adolescents. MMWR., 51(RR7), 1-64 (2002)
  64. El-Sadr, W. and Neaton, J., Episodic CD4-guided use of antiretroviral therapy is inferior to continuous therapy: results of the SMART study. Abstract 106LB Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Denver, CO. U.S.A., (2006)
  65. Eskild, A., Magnus, P., Petersen, G., Sohlberg, C., Jensen, F., Kittelsen, P., and Skaug, K., Hepatitis B antibodies in HIVinfected homosexual men are associated with more rapid progression to AIDS. AIDS., 6, 571-574 (1992) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199206000-00008
  66. Esnouf, R. M., Ren, J., Hopkins, A. L., Ross, C. K., Jones, E. Y., Stammers, D. K., and Stuart, D. I., Unique features in the structure of the complex between HIV-1 reverse transcriptase and the bis(heteroaryl)piperazine (BHAP) U-90152 explain resistance mutations for this nonnucleoside inhibitor. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 94, 3984-3989 (1997)
  67. The European Collaborative Study. Maternal viral load and vertical transmission of HIV-1: an important factor but not the only one. AIDS., 13, 1377-1385 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199907300-00016
  68. Fargioin, S., Fracanzani, A. L., and Valenti, L., Treatment Choices for people infected with HCV. J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 53, 708-712 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkh170
  69. Feng, J. Y., Myrick, F. T., Margot, N. A., Mulamba, G. B., Rimsky, L., Borroto-Esoda, K., Selmi, B., and Canard, B., Virologic and enzymatic studies revealing the mechanism of K65Rand Q151m-associated HIV-1 drug resistance towards emtricitabine and lamivudine. Nucleos. Nucleot. Nucl., 25, 89-107 (2006) https://doi.org/10.1080/15257770500379157
  70. Finzi, D., Hermankova, M., Pierson, T., Carruth, L. M., Buck, C., Chaisson, R. E., Quinn, T. C., Chadwick, K., Margolick, J., Brookmeyer, R., Gallant, J., Markowitz, M., Ho, D. D., Richman, D. D., and Siliciano, R. F., Identification of a reservoir for HIV-1 in patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. Science, 278, 1295-300 (1997) https://doi.org/10.1126/science.278.5341.1295
  71. Fischl, M. A., Zidovudine, p. 17-31. In Dolin R, Masur H, and Saag MS (ed),AIDS Therapy. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia. (1999)
  72. Fish, D. E., Hay, A., Waters, J. A., McGarvey, M. J., Main, J., and Thomas, H. C., Histological and immunohistochemical study of hepatitis B virus in human immunodeficiency virus infection. J. Clin. Pathol., 43, 203-205 (1990) https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.43.3.203
  73. Flexner, C., HIV-protease inhibitors. N. Engl. J. Med., 338, 1281-1292 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199804303381808
  74. Folks, T. M. and Hart, C. E., The life cycle of human immunodeficiency virus type 1, p 29-44. In DeVita Jr VT, Hellman S and Rosenberg SA (ed), AIDS. Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia. (1997)
  75. Foster, R. H. and Faulds, D., Abacavir. Drugs, 55, 729-736 (1998) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199855050-00018
  76. Fried, M. W., Shiffman, M. L., Reddy, K. R., Smith, C., Marinos, G., Goncales, F. L. Jr., Haussinger, D., Diago, M., Carosi, G., Dhumeaux, D., Craxi, A., Lin, A., Hoffman, J., and Yu, J., Peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med., 347, 975-982 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa020047
  77. Friedland, G. H., Pollard, R., Griffith, B., Hughes, M., Morse, G., Bassett, R., Freimuth, W., Demeter, L., Connick, E., Nevin, T., Hirsch, M., and Fischl, M., Efficacy and safety of delavirdine mesylate with zidovudine and didanosine compared with two-drug combinations of these agents in persons with HIV disease with CD4 counts of 100 to 500 cells/mm3. J. AIDS., 21, 281-292 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1097/00126334-199908010-00005
  78. Friis-Moller, N., Sabin, C. A., Weber, R., d'Arminio Monforte, A., El-Sadr, W. M., Reiss, P., Thiebaut, R., Morfeldt, L., De Wit, S., Pradier, C., Calvo, G., Law, M. G., Kirk, O., Phillips, A. N., and Lundgren, J. D., Data Collection on Adverse Events of Anti-HIV Drugs (DAD) Study Group. Combination antiretroviral therapy and the risk of myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med., 349, 1993-2003 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa030218
  79. Gallant, J. E., DeJesus, E., Arribas, J. R., Pozniak, A. L., Gazzard, B., Campo, R. E., Lu, B., McColl, D., Chuck, S., Enejosa, J., Toole, J. J., and Cheng, A. K., Study 934 Group. Tenofovir DF, emtricitabine, and efavirenz vs. zidovudine, lamivudine, and efavirenz for HIV. N. Engl. J. Med., 354, 251- 260 (2006) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa051871
  80. Gallant, J. E. and Deresinski, S., Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate. Clin. Infect. Dis., 37, 944-950 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1086/378068
  81. Gallant, J. E., Rodriguez, A. E., Weinberg, W. G., Young, B., Berger, D. S., Lim, M. L., Liao, Q., Ross, L,. Johnson, J., and Shaefer, M. S., ESS30009 Study. Early virologic nonresponse to tenofovir, abacavir, and lamivudine in HIV-infected antiretroviral-naive subjects. J. Infect. Dis., 192, 1921-1930 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1086/498069
  82. Gallant, J. E., Staszewski, S., Pozniak, A. L., DeJesus, E., Suleiman, J. M., Miller, M. D., Coakley, D. F., Lu, B., Toole, J. J., and Cheng, A. K., 903 Study Group. Efficacy and safety of tenofovir DF vs stavudine in combination therapy in antiretroviral-naive patients: a 3-year randomized trial. JAMA., 292, 191-201 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.292.2.191
  83. Gao, H. Q., Boyer, P. L., Sarafianos, S. G., Arnold, E., and Hughes, S. H., The role of steric hindrance in 3TC resistance of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 reverse transcriptase. J. Molec. Biol., 300, 403-418 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1006/jmbi.2000.3823
  84. Garcia, P. M., Kalish, L. A., Pitt, J., Minkoff, H., Quinn, T. C., Burchett, S. K., Kornegay, J., Jackson, B., Moye, J., Hanson, C., Zorrilla, C., and Lew, J. F., Maternal levels of plasma human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA and the risk of perinatal transmission. N. Engl. J .Med., 341, 394-402 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199908053410602
  85. Garcia-Samaniego, J., Rodriguez, M., Berenguer, J., Rodriguez- Rosado, R., Carbo, J., Asensi, V., and Soriano, V., Hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected patients with chronic hepatitis C. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 96, 179-183 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.03374.x
  86. Gathe, J. C. Jr., Ive, P., Wood, R., Schurmann, D., Bellos, N. C., DeJesus, E., Gladysz, A., Garris, C., and Yeo, J., SOLO: 48- week efficacy and safety comparison of once-daily fosamprenavir /ritonavir versus twice-daily nelfinavir in naive HIV-1- infected patients. AIDS., 18, 1529-1537 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000131332.30548.92
  87. Gerberding, J. L., Prophylaxis for occupational exposure to HIV. Ann. Intern. Med., 125, 497-501 (1996) https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-125-6-199609150-00011
  88. Gerard, Y., Maulin, L., Yazdanpanah, Y., De La Tribonniere, X., Amiel, C., Maurage, C. A., Robin, S., Sablonniere, B., Dhennain, C., and Mouton, Y., Symptomatic hyperlactataemia: an emerging complication of antiretroviral therapy. AIDS., 14, 2723-2730 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200012010-00012
  89. Gerstoft, J., Dragsted, U. B., and Cahn, P., Final analysis of a randomized trial to evaluate safety and efficacy of indinavir/ ritonavir versus saquinavir/ritonavir in adult HIV-1 infection: the MAXCmin1 trial [abstract P29]. 6th International Congress on Drug Therapy in HIV Infection (Glasgow). London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, (2002)
  90. Gerstoft, J., Mallolas, J., and Lundgren, J., A randomized trial comparing continued indinavir vs. switching to indinavir plus ritonavir in HIV patients having suppressed viral load with indinavir plus two nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors: the best study [abstract O-8]. In: 8th European Conference on Clinical aspects and Treatment of HIV Infection. Athens (2001)
  91. Greub, G., Ledergerber, B., Battegay, M., Grob, P., Perrin, L., Furrer, H., Burgisser, P., Erb, P., Boggian, K., Piffaretti, J. C., Hirschel, B., Janin, P., Francioli, P., Flepp, M., and Telenti A., Clinical progression, survival, and immune recovery during antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV-1 and hepatitis C virus coinfection: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Lancet., 356, 1800-1805 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03232-3
  92. Grinspoon, S. and Carr, A., Cardiovascular risk and body-fat abnormalities in HIV infected adults. N. Engl. J. Med., 352, 48-62 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra041811
  93. Gulick, R. M., Mellors, J. W., Havlir, D., Eron, J. J., Gonzalez, C., McMahon, D., Richman, D. D., Valentine, F. T., Jonas, L., Meibohm, A., Emini, E. A., and Chodakewitz, J. A., Treatment with indinavir, zidovudine, and lamivudine in adults with human immunodeficiency virus infection and prior antiretroviral therapy. N. Engl. J. Med., 337, 734-739 (1997) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199709113371102
  94. Gulick, R. M., Mellors, J. W., Havlir, D., Eron, J. J., Gonzalez, C., McMahon, D., Jonas, L., Meibohm, A., Holder, D., Schleif, W. A., Condra, J. H., Emini, E. A., Isaacs, R., Chodakewitz, J. A., and Richman, D. D., Simultaneous vs sequential initiation of therapy with indinavir, zidovudine, and lamivudine for HIV- 1 infection. JAMA., 280, 35-41 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.1.35
  95. Gulick, R. M., Ribaudo, H. J., Shikuma, C. M., Lustgarten, S., Squires, K. E., Meyer, W. A. 3rd., Acosta, E. P., Schackman. B. R., Pilcher. C. D., Murphy, R. L., Maher, W. E., Witt, M. D., Reichman, R. C., Snyder, S., Klingman, K. L., and Kuritzkes, D. R., AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study A5095 Team. Triplenucleoside regimens versus efavirenz-containing regimens for the initial treatment of HIV-1 infection. N. Engl. J. Med., 350, 1850-1861 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa031772
  96. Hammer, S. M., Squires, K. E., Hughes, M. D., Grimes, J. M., Demeter, L. M., Currier, J. S., Eron, J. J., Feinberg, J. E., Balfour, H. H., Deyton, L. R., Chodakewitz, J. A., and Fischl, M. A., A controlled trial of two nucleoside analogues plus indinavir in persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection and CD4 cell counts of 200 per cubic millimeter or less. N. Engl. J. Med., 337, 725-733 (1997) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199709113371101
  97. Hanna, G. J. and Hirsch, M. S., New Drugs in Development p. 263-272 In Dolin R, Masur H, and Saag MS (ed), AIDS Therapy. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia. (2003)
  98. Haubrich, R. H., Kemper, C. A., Hellmann, N. S., Keiser, P. H., Witt, M. D., Tilles, J. G., Forthal, D. N., Leedom, J., Leibowitz, M., McCutchan, J. A., Richman, D. D., and the California Collaborative Treatment Group. A randomized, prospective study of phenotype susceptibility testing versus standard of care to manage antiretroviral therapy: CCTG 575. AIDS., 19, 295-302 (2005)
  99. Havlir, D. V., Marschner, I. C., Hirsch, M. S., Collier, A. C., Tebas, P., Bassett, R. L., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Holohan, M. K., Leavitt, R., Boone, G., Richman, D. D., Maintenance antiretroviral therapies in HIV-infected subjects with undetectable plasma HIV RNA after triple-drug therapy. N. Engl. J. Med., 339, 1261-1268 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199810293391801
  100. Havlir, D. V. and O'Marro, S. D., Atazanavir: New Option for Treatment of HIV Infection. Clin. Infect. Dis., 38, 1599-1604 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1086/420932
  101. Hecht, F. M., Grant, R. M., Petropoulos, C. J., Dillon, B., Chesney, M. A., Tian, H., Hellmann, N. S., Bandrapalli, N. I., Digilio, L., Branson, B., and Kahn, J. O., Brief Report: Sexual Transmission of an HIV-1 Variant Resistant to Multiple Reverse-Transcriptase and Protease Inhibitors N. Engl. J. Med., 339, 307-311 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199807303390504
  102. Hewitt, R. G., Abacavir hypersensitivity reaction. Clin. Infect. Dis., 34, 1137-1142 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1086/339751
  103. Hilts, A. E. and Fish, D. N., Dosage adjustment of antiretroviral agents in patients with organ dysfunction. Am. J. Health-Syst. Pharm., 55, 2528-2533 (1998)
  104. Hinrichsen, H., Benhamou, Y., Wedemeyer, H., Reiser, M., Sentjens, R. E., Calleja, J. L., Forns, X., Erhardt, A., Cronlein, J., Chaves, R. L., Yong, C. L., Nehmiz, G., and Steinmann, G. G., Short-term antiviral efficacy of BILN 2061, a hepatitis C virus serine protease inhibitor, in hepatitis C genotype 1 patients. Gastroenterol., 127, 1347-1355 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2004.08.002
  105. Hirsch, M. S., Azidothymidine. J. Inf. Dis., 157, 427-430 (1998)
  106. Hirsch, M. S., Brun-Vezinet, F., Clotet, B., Conway, B., Kuritzkes, D. R., D'Aquila, R. T., Demeter, L. M., Hammer, S. M., Johnson, V. A., Loveday, C., Mellors, J. W., Jacobsen, D. M., and Richman, D. D., Antiretroviral drug resistance testing in adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1: 2003 recommendations of an International AIDS Society- USA Panel. Clin. Infect. Dis., 37, 113-128 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1086/375597
  107. Hoff, J., Bani-Sadr, F., Gassin, M., and Raffi, F., Evaluation of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in coinfected patients receiving lamivudine as a component of anti-human immunodeficiency virus regimens. Clin. Infect. Dis., 32, 963- 969 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1086/319368
  108. Hoffman-LaRoche, Inc. Roferon-A Package Insert. (2001)
  109. Hoofnagle, J. H., and Di Bisceglie, A. M., Drug Therapy: The Treatment of Chronic Viral Hepatitis. N. Engl. J. Med., 336, 347-356 (1997) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199701303360507
  110. Hughes, M. D., Johnson, V. A., Hirsch, M. S., Bremer, J. W., Elbeik T., Erice, A., Kuritzkes, D. R., Scott, W. A., Spector, S. A., Basgoz, N., Fischl, M. A., and D'Aquila, R. T., Monitoring plasma HIV-1 RNA levels in addition to CD4+ lymphocyte count improves assessment of antiretroviral therapeutic response. Ann. Intern. Med., 126, 929-938 (1997) https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-126-12-199706150-00001
  111. Hurst, M. and Noble, S., Stavudine: an update of its use in the treatment of HIV infection. Drugs, 58, 919-949 (1998) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199958050-00012
  112. Imhof, A., Ledergerber, B., Gunthard, H. F., Haupts, S., and Weber, R., Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Risk factors for and outcome of hyperlactatemia in HIV-infected persons: is there a need for routine lactate monitoring? Clin. Infect. Dis., 41, 721-728 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1086/432471
  113. The International Perinatal HIV Group. The mode of delivery and the risk of vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. A meta-analysis of 15 prospective cohort studies. N. Engl. J. Med., 340, 977-987 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199904013401301
  114. Ioannidis, J. P. A., Abrams, E. J., Ammann, A., Bulterys, M., Goedert, J. J., Gray, L., Korber, B. T., Mayaux, M. J., Mofenson, L. M., Newell, M. L., Shapiro, D. E., Teglas, J. P., and Wilfert, C. M., Perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by pregnant women with RNA virus loads <1000 copies/mL. J. Infect. Dis., 183, 539-545 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1086/318530
  115. Iversen, A. K., Shafer, R. W., Wehrly, K., Winters, M. A., Mullins, J. I., Chesebro, B., and Merigan, T. C., Multidrug-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 strains resulting from combination antiretroviral therapy. J. Virol., 70, 1086-1090 (1996)
  116. Japour, A., Lertora, J., Meehan, P. M., Erice, A., Connor, J. D., Griggith, B. P., Clax, P. A., Holden-Wiltse, J., Hussey, S., Walesky, M., Cooney, E., Pollard, R., Timpone, J., McLaren, C., Johanneson, N., Wood, K., Booth, D., Bassiakos, Y., and Crumpacker, C. S., A phase I study on the safety, pharmacokinetics and antiviral activity of combination didanosine and ribavirin in patients with HIV-1 disease (ACTG 231 protocol). J. AIDS., 13, 235-246 (1996)
  117. Jarvis, B. and Faulds, D., Nelfinavir. A review of its therapeutic efficacy in HIV infection. Drugs., 56, 147-167 (1998) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199856010-00013
  118. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), and World Health Organization (WHO). Global Summary of the AIDS Epidemic. AIDS epidemic update: December 2005, 1-2 (2005)
  119. Jourdain, G., Ngo-Giang-Huong, N., LeCour, S., Bowonwatanuwong, C., Kantipong, P., Leechanachai, P., Ariyadej, S., Leenasirimakul, P., Hammer, S., Lallemant, M., and the Perinatal HIV Prevention Trial Group. Intrapartum Exposure to Nevirapine and Subsequent Maternal Responses to Nevirapine-Based Antiretroviral Therapy. N. Engl. J. Med., 351, 229-240 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa041305
  120. Kakuda, T. and Brinkman, K., Mitochondrial toxic effects of ribavirin. Lancet., 357, 1802-1803 (2001)
  121. Katlama, C., Berger, D., Bellos, N., Grinsztejn, B., Haubrich, R., Wilkin, T., Monlina, J. M., Steinhart, C., Pedro, R., de Bethune, M. P., De Meyer, S., Hoetelmans, R., Parys, W., Vangeneuden, T., and Lefebvre, E., Efficacy of TMC114/r in 3 class experienced patients with limited treatment options: 24 week planned interim analysis of 2 96 week multinational dosefinding trials. Abstract 164LB Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Boston, MA. U.S.A. (2005)
  122. Katner, H. P., Paar, D. P., Nadler, J. P., Jensen, E. H., Wilson, H. M., Finn, T. S., Petruschke, R. A., and Zeldin, R. K., Openlabel study of a twice-daily indinavir 800-mg/ritonavir 200 mg regimen in HIV-infected adults failing a protease inhibitor regimen. J. AIDS., 483-487 (2002)
  123. Karrer, U., Ledergerber, B., Furrer, H., Elzi, L,. Battegay, M., Cavassini, M., Gayet-Ageron, A., Hirschel, B., Schmid, P., Russotti, M., Weber, R., and Speck, R. F., Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Dose-dependent influence of didanosine on immune recovery in HIV-infected patients treated with tenofovir. AIDS., 19, 1987-1994 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000194136.73876.9c
  124. Katlama, C. and Havlir, D. V., Newer nucleosides: lamivudine and stavudine. AIDS., 10, (supple A), S135-S143 (1996) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199601001-00019
  125. Kearney, B. P., Mittan, A., Sayre, J., Flaherty, J. F., Zhong, L., Toole, J. J., and Cheng, A. K., Pharmacokinetic drug interaction and long term safety profile of tenofovir DF and lopinavir/ ritonavir. Abstract A-1617. ICAAC September 2003 Chicago Ill
  126. Kearney, B. P., Flaherty, J. F., and Shah, J., Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate: clinical pharmacology and pharmacokinetics. Clin. Pharm., 43, 595-612 (2004) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200443090-00003
  127. Kempf, D. J., Marsh, K. C., Kumar, G., Rodrigues, A. D., Denissen, J. F., McDonald, E., Kukulka, M. J., Hsu, A., Granneman, G. R., Baroldi, P. A., Sun, E., Pizzuti, D., Plattner, J. J., Norbeck, D. W., and Leonard, J. M., Pharmacokinetic enhancement of inhibitors of the human immunodeficiency virus protease by coadministration with ritonavir. Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother., 41, 654-660 (1997)
  128. Keswani, S. C., Pardo, C. A., Cherry, C. L., Hoke, A. and McArthur, J. C., HIV-associated sensory neuropathies. AIDS., 16, 2105-2117 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200211080-00002
  129. Kilby, J. M., Inhibitors of HIV attachment and fusion. P. 252-262. In Dolin R, Masur H, and Saag MS (ed),AIDS Therapy. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia. (1999)
  130. Kilby, J. M. and Eron, J. J., Novel therapies based on mechanisms of HIV-1 cell entry. N. Engl. J. Med., 348, 2228-2238 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra022812
  131. Kilby, J. M., Sfakianos, G., Gizzi, N., Siemon-Hryczyk, P., Ehrensing, E., Oo, C., Buss, N., and Saag, M. S. Safety and pharmacokinetics of once-daily regimens of soft-gel capsule saquinavir plus minidose ritonavir in human immunodeficiency virus-negative adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 44, 2672-2678 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.44.10.2672-2678.2000
  132. Kohlbrenner, V. M., Development of a tipranavir mutation score: analysis of protease mutations associated with phenotypic drug susceptibility and antiviral response in Phase II clinical trials. XIII International HIV Drug Resistance Workshop. Tenerife, Spain. (2004)
  133. Kosalaraksa, P., Kavlick, M. F., Maroun, V., Le R., and Mitsuya, H., Comparative fitness of multi-dideoxynucleoside-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in an in vitro competitive HIV-1 replication assay. J. Virol., 73, 5356-5363 (1999)
  134. Knudtson, E., Para, M., Boswell, H., and Fan-Havard, P., Drug Rash with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms Syndrome and Renal Toxicity with a Nevirapine-Containing Regimen in a Pregnant Patient with Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Obstet. Gynecol., 101, 1094-1097 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0029-7844(02)02620-0
  135. Konopnicki, D., Mocroft, A., de Wit, S., Antunes, F., Ledergerber, B., Katlama, C., Zilmer, K., Vella, S., Kirk, O., Lundgren, J. D., and the EuroSIDA Group. Hepatitis B and HIV: prevalence, AIDS progression, response to highly active antiretroviral therapy and increased mortality in the EuroSIDA cohort. AIDS., 19, 593-601 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000163936.99401.fe
  136. Kuhn, L., Abrams, E. J., Matheson, P. B., Thomas, P. A., Lambert, G., Bamji, M., Greenberg, B., Steketee, R. W., Thea, D. M., for the New York City Perinatal HIV Transmission Collaborative Study Group. Timing of maternal-infant HIV transmission: associations between intrapartum factors and early polymerase chain reaction results. AIDS., 11, 429-435 (1997) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199704000-00005
  137. Kurowski, M., Kaeser, B., Sawyer, A., Popescu, M., and Mrozikiewicz, A., Low-dose ritonavir moderately enhances nelfinavir exposure. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 72, 123-132 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1067/mcp.2002.126178
  138. Lafeuillade, A., Hittinger, G., and Chapadaud, S., Increased mitochondrial toxicity with ribavirin in HIV/HCV coinfection. Lancet., 357, 280-281 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03618-7
  139. Lalezari, J. P., Henry, K., O'Hearn, M., Montaner, J. S., Piliero, P. J.. Trottier, B., Walmsley, S., Cohen, C., Kuritzkes, D. R., Eron, J. J. Jr., Chung, J., DeMasi, R., Donatacci, L., Drobnes, C., Delehanty, J., and Salgo, M., TORO 1 Study Group. Enfuvirtide, an HIV-1 fusion inhibitor, for drug-resistant HIV infection in North and South America. N. Engl. J. Med., 348, 2175-2185 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa035026
  140. Lallemant, M., Jourdain, G., LeCoeur, S., Mary, J. Y., Ngo- Giang-Huong, N., Koetsawang, S., Kanshana, S., McIntosh, K., Thaineua, V., and the Perinatal HIV Prevention Trial (Thailand) Investigators. Single-Dose Perinatal Nevirapine plus Standard Zidovudine to Prevent Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV-1 in Thailand. N. Engl. J. Med., 351, 217-228 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa033500
  141. Landau, A., Batisse, D., Piketty, C., Jian, R., and Kazatchkin, M., Lack of interference between ribavirin and nucleoside analogues in HIV/HCV coinfected individuals undergoing concomitant antiretroviral and anti-HCV combination therapy. AIDS., 14, 1857-1858 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200008180-00025
  142. Larder, B. A., and Kemp, S. D., Multiple mutations in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase confer high-level resistance to zidovudine (AZT). Science, 246, 1155-1158 (1989) https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2479983
  143. Larder, B. A., Kemp, S. D., and Harrigan, P. R., Potential mechanism for sustained antiretroviral efficacy of AZT-3TC combination therapy. Science., 269, 696-699 (1995) https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7542804
  144. Lauer, G. M. and Walker, B. D., Hepatitis C Virus Infection. N. Engl. J. Med., 345, 41-52 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200107053450107
  145. Lawrence, J., Mayers, D. L., Hullsiek, K. H., Collins, G., Abrams, D. I., Reisler, R. B., Crane, L. R., Schmetter, B. S., Dionne, T. J., Saldanha, J. M., Jones, M. C., and Baxter, J. D., 064 Study Team of the Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. Structured treatment interruption in patients with multidrug-resistant human immunodeficiency virus. N. Engl. J. Med., 349, 837-846 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa035103
  146. Lazzarin, A., Clotet, B., Cooper, D., Reynes, J., Arasteh, K., Nelson, M., Katlama, C., Stellbrink, H. J., Delfraissy, J. F., Lange, J., Huson, L., DeMasi, R., Wat, C., Delehanty, J., Drobnes, C., and Salgo, M., TORO 2 Study Group. Efficacy of enfuvirtide in patients infected with drug-resistant HIV-1 in Europe and Australia. N. Engl. J. Med., 348, 2186-2195 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa035211
  147. Ledergerber, B., Egger, M., Erard, V., Weber, R., Hirschel, B., Furrer, H., Battegay, M., Vernazza, P., Bernasconi, E., Opravil, M., Kaufmann, D., Sudre, P., Francioli, P., and Telenti, A., AIDS-related opportunistic illnesses occurring after initiation of potent antiretroviral therapy. JAMA., 282, 2220-2226 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.282.23.2220
  148. Lee, W. M., Medical Progress: Hepatitis B Virus Infection. N. Engl. J. Med., 337, 1733-1745 (1997) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199712113372406
  149. Le Tiec, C., Barrail, A., Goujard, C., and Taburet, A. M., Clinical pharmacokinetics and summary of efficacy and tolerability of atazanavir. Clin. Pharmacokinet., 44, 1035-50 (2005) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200544100-00003
  150. Levine, S., Hernandez, D., Yamanaka, G., Zhang, S., Rose, R., Weinheimer, S., and Colonno, R. J., Efficacies of Entecavir against lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B virus replication and recombinant polymerases in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother., 46, 2525-2532 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.46.8.2525-2532.2002
  151. Lisziewicz, J., Rosenberg, E., Lieberman, J., Jessen, H., Lopalco, L., Siliciano, R., Walker, B., and Lori, F., Control of HIV despite the discontinuation of antiretroviral therapy. N. Engl. J. Med., 340,1683-1684 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199905273402114
  152. Little, S. J., Holte, S., Routy, J.-P., Daar, E. S., Markowitz, M., Collier, A. C., Koup, R. A., Mellors, J. W., Connick, E., Conway, B., Kilby, M., Wang, L., Whitcomb, J. M., Hellmann, N. S., and Richman, D. D., Antiretroviral-Drug Resistance among Patients Recently Infected with HIV. N. Engl. J. Med., 347, 385-394 (2002a) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa013552
  153. Little, S. J., Daar, E. S., Holte, S., Frost, S., Routy, J. P., Markowitz, M., Collier, A. C., Margolick, J. B., Koup, R. A., Conway, B., Connick, E., Kilby, M., Wrin, T., Petropoulos, C. J., Hellmann, N. S., and Richman, D. D., Persistence of transmitted drug resistance among subjects with primary HIV infection not receiving antiretroviral therapy. In: 9th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Abstract 95. (2002b)
  154. Lurie, P., Miller, S., Hecht, F., Chesney, M., and Lo, B., Postexposure prophylaxis after nonoccupational HIV exposure. JAMA., 280, 1769-1773 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.20.1769
  155. McDowell, J. A., Chittick, G. E., Ravitch, J. R., Polk, R. E., Kerkering, T. M., and Stein, D. S., Pharmacokinetics of abacavir, a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase inhibitor, administered in a single oral dose to HIV-1-infected adults: a mass balance study. Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother., 43, 2855-2861 (1999)
  156. McMahon, B. J., Epidemiology and natural history of hepatitis B. Sem. Liver. Disease., 1 (25 Suppl), 3-8 (2005)
  157. Maitland, D., Moyle, G., Hand, J., Mandalia, S., Boffito, M., Nelson, M., and Gazzard, B., Early virologic failure in HIV-1 infected subjects on didanosine/tenofovir/efavirenz: 12-week results from a randomized trial. AIDS. 19,1183-1188 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000176218.40861.14
  158. Malik, A., Abraham, P., and Malik, N. Acute renal failure and Fanconi syndrome in an AIDS patient on tenofovir treatment- -case report and review of literature. J. Infect. 51, E61-65 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2004.08.031
  159. Marcelin, A. G., Delaugerre, C., Wirden, M., Viegas, P., Simon, A., Katlama, C., and Calvez, V., Thymidine analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors resistance mutations profiles and association to other nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors resistance mutations observed in the context of virological failure. J. Med. Virol., 72, 162-165 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.10550
  160. Marcellin, P., Asselah, T., and Boyer, N., Treatment of chronic hepatitis B. J. Viral. Hepatit., 12, 333-345 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2893.2005.00599.x
  161. Marrone, A., Zampino, R., Karayannis, P., Cirillo, G., Cesaro, G., Guerrera, B., Ricciotti, R., del Giudice, E. M., Utili, R., Adinolfi, L. E., and Ruggiero, G., Clinical reactivation during lamivudine treatment correlates with mutations in the precore/core promoter and polymerase regions of hepatitis B virus in patients with anti-hepatitis B e-positive chronic hepatitis. Aliment. Pharm. Therap., 22, 707-714 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02653.x
  162. Martin, A., Smith, D. E., Carr, A., Ringland, C., Amin, J., Emery, S., Hoy, J., Workman, C., Doong, N., Freund, J., and Cooper, D. A., Mitochondrial Toxicity Study Group. Reversibility of lipoatrophy in HIV-infected patients 2 years after switching from a thymidine analogue to abacavir: the MITOX Extension Study. AIDS., 18, 1029-1036 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200404300-00011
  163. Martinez, E., Arnaiz, J. A., Podzamczer, D., Dalmau, D., Ribera, E., Domingo, P., Knobel, H., Riera, M., Pedrol, E., Force, L., Llibre, J. M., Segura, F., Richart, C., Cortes, C., Javaloyas, M., Aranda, M., Cruceta, A., de Lazzari, E., and Gatell, J. M., Nevirapine, Efavirenz, and Abacavir (NEFA) Study Team. Substitution of nevirapine, efavirenz, or abacavir for protease inhibitors in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med., 349, 1036-1046 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa021589
  164. Mellors, J. W., Munoz, A., Giorgi, J. V., Margolick, J. B., Tassoni, C. J., Gupta, P., Kingsley, L. A., Todd, J. A., Saah, A. J., Detels, R., Phair, J. P., and Rinaldo, C. R., Plasma viral load and CD4+ Lymphocytes as prognostic markers of HIV-1 infection. Ann. Intern. Med., 126:946-954 (1997) https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-126-12-199706150-00003
  165. Mellors, J. W., Rinaldo, C. R., Gupta, P., White, R. M., Todd, J. A. and Kingsley, L. A., Prognosis in HIV-1 infection predicted by the quantity of virus in plasma. Science, 272, 1167-1170 (1996) https://doi.org/10.1126/science.272.5265.1167
  166. Menzo, S., Castagna, A., Monachetti, A., Hasson, H., Danise, A., Carini, E., Bagnarelli, P., Lazzarin, A., and Clementi, M., Genotype and phenotype patterns of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 resistance to enfuvirtide during long-term treatment. Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother., 48, 3253-3259 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.48.9.3253-3259.2004
  167. Meynard, J. L., Vray, M., Morand-Joubert, L., Race, E., Descamps, D., Peytavin, G., Matheron, S., Lamotte, C., Guiramand, S., Costagliola, D., Brun-Vezinet, F., Clavel, F., Girard, P. M., and the Narval Trial Group. Phenotypic or genotypic resistance testing for choosing antiretroviral therapy after treatment failure: a randomized trial. AIDS., 16, 727-736 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200203290-00008
  168. Miller, V., Mocroft, A., Reiss, P., Katlama, C., Papadopoulos, A. I., Katzenstein, T., Van Lunzen, J., Antunes, F., Phillips, A. N., and Lundgren, J. D., Relations among CD4 lymphocyte count nadir, antiretroviral therapy, and HIV-1 disease progression: results from the EuroSIDA study. Ann. Intern. Med.,130, 570-577 (1999) https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-130-7-199904060-00005
  169. Miller, V., Staszewski, S., Boucher, C. A., and Phair, J. P., Clinical experience with non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. AIDS., 11, (suppl A), S157-S164 (1997) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199702000-00004
  170. Minkoff, H. and Augenbraun, M., Antiretroviral therapy for pregnant women. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 176, 478-489 (1997) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9378(97)70519-2
  171. Mock, P. A., Shaffer, N., Bhadrakom, C., Siriwasin, W., Chotpitayasunondh, T., Chearskul, S., Young, N. L., Roongpisuthipong, A., Chinayon, P., Kalish, M. L., Parekh, B., and Mastro, T. D., Maternal viral load and timing of mother-to-child HIV transmission, Bangkok, Thailand. AIDS., 13, 407-414 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199902250-00014
  172. Mocroft, A., Youle, M., Phillips, A. N., Halai, R., Easterbrook, P., Johnson, M. A. and Gazzard, B., The incidence of AIDSdefining illnesses in 4883 patients with human immunode-ficiency virus infection. Arch. Intern. Med., 158, 491-497 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.158.5.491
  173. Mofenson, L. M., Lambert, J.S., Stiehm, E.R., Bethel, J., Meyer, W. A., Whitehouse, J., Moye J., Reichelderfer, P., Harris, D. R., Fowler, M. G., Mathieson, B. J., and Nemo, G. J., Risk factors for perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in women treated with zidovudine. N. Engl. J. Med., 341, 385-393 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199908053410601
  174. Mofenson, L. M. and the U.S. Public Health Service Task Force Recommendations for Use--of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant HIV-1--Infected Women for Maternal Health and Interventions To Reduce Perinatal HIV-1 Transmission in the United States. MMWR., 51 (RR18), 1-38 (2002)
  175. Molto, J., Ruiz, L., Romeu, J., Martinez-Picado, J., Negredo, E., Tural, C., Sirera, G., and Clotet, B., Influence of prior structured treatment interruptions on the length of time without antiretroviral treatment in chronically HIV-infected subjects. AIDS Res. & Hum. Retrovir., 20, 1283-1288 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.2004.20.1283
  176. Monga, H. K., Rodriguez-Barradas, M. C., Breaux, K., Khattak, K., Troisi, C. L., Velez, M., and Yoffe, B., Hepatitis C virus infection-related morbidity and mortality among patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin. Infect. Dis., 33, 240-247 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1086/321819
  177. Montaner, J. S. G., Reiss, P., Cooper, D., Vella, S., Harris, M., Conway, B., Wainberg, M. A., Smith, D., Robinson, P., Hall, D., Myers, M., and Lange, J. M. A., A randomized, doubleblind trial comparing combinations of nevirapine, didanosine, and zidovudine for HIV-infected patients. JAMA., 279, 930- 937 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.279.12.930
  178. MMWR. Incidence of Acute Hepatitis B-United States, 1990- 2002. MMWR., 51, 1252-1254 (2004)
  179. Morsica, G., De Bona, A., Uberti, C., Sitia, G., Finazzi, R., and Lazzarin, A., Ribavirin therapy for chronic hepatitis C does not modify HIV viral load in HIV-1 positive patients under antiretroviral treatment. AIDS., 14, 1656-1658 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200007280-00023
  180. Moyle, G., Pozniak, A., Opravil, M., Clumeck, N., DelFraissy, J. - F., Johnson, M., Pelgrom, J., Reynes, J., Vittecoq, D., DeLora, P., Salgo, M., and Duff, F., The SPICE study: 48- week activity of combinations of saquinavir soft gelatin and nelfinavir with and without nucleoside analogues. J. AIDS., 23, 128-137 (2000)
  181. Murphy, R. L., Brun, S., and King, M., Lopinavir/ritonavir (Kaletra) in antiretroviral naïve HIV+ patients: 4 year followup [abstract H-165]. 42nd Interscience on Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (San Diego). (2002)
  182. Murphy, R. L., Gulick, R. M., DeGruttola, V., D'Aquila, R. T., Eron, J. J., Sommadossi, J. -P., Currier, J. S., Smeaton, L., Frank, I., Caliendo, A. M., Gerber, J. G., Tung, R., and Kuritzkes, D. R., Treatment with amprenavir alone or amprenavir with zidovudine and lamivudine in adults with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J. Infect. Dis., 179, 808-816 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1086/314668
  183. Musselman, D. L., Lawson, D. H., Gumnick, J. F., Manatunga, A. K., Penna, S., Goodkin, R. S., Greiner, K., Nemeroff, C. B., and Miller, A. H., Paroxetine for the Prevention of Depression Induced by High-Dose Interferon Alfa. N. Engl. J. Med., 344, 961-966 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200103293441303
  184. Nduati, R., Grace, J., Mbori-Ngacha, D., Richardson, B., Overbaugh, J., Mwatha, A., Ndinya-Achola, J., Bwayo, J., Onyango, F. E., Hughes, J., and Kreiss, J., Effect of breastfeeding and formula feeding on transmission of HIV-1: a randomised clinical trial. JAMA., 283, 1167-1174 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.283.9.1167
  185. Nottermans, D. W., Pakker, N. G., Hamann, D., Foudraine, N. A., Kauffmann, R. H., Meenhorst, P. L., Goudsmit, J., Roos, M. T. L., Schellekens, P. T. A., Miedema, F., and Danner, S. A., Immune reconstitution after 2 years of successful potent antiretroviral therapy in previously untreated human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected adults. J. Infect. Dis., 180, 1050-1056 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1086/315013
  186. Núñez, M., Puoti, M., Camino, N., and Soriano, V., Treatment of chronic hepatitis B in the human immunodeficiency virusinfected patient: present and future. Clin. Infect. Dis., 37, 1678-1685 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1086/379774
  187. Núñez, M., Maida, I., Berdún, M., and Soriano, V., Efficacy and safety of pegylated interferon a-2a plus ribavirin for the treatment of hepatitis C in HIV-coinfected patients: the PRESCO trial. In: 44th ICAAC, Abstract V-1148 (2004)
  188. O'Brien, W. A., Hartigan, P. M., Daar, E. S., Simberkoff, M. S., and Hamilton, J. D., Changes in plasma HIV RNA levels and CD4+ lymphocyte counts predict both response to antiretroviral therapy and therapeutic failure. Ann. Intern. Med., 126, 939-945 (1997) https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-126-12-199706150-00002
  189. Pachl, C., Todd, J. A., and Kern, D. G., Rapid and precise quantification of HIV-1 RNA in plasma using a branched DNA signal amplification assay. J. AIDS., 8, 446-454 (1995)
  190. Palella, F. J., Delaney, K. M., Moorman, A. C., Loveless, M. O., Fuhrer, J., Satten, G. A., Aschman, D. J., and Holmberg, S. D., Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med., 338, 853-60 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199803263381301
  191. Department of Health and Human Services. Panel on clinical practices for the treatment of HIV infection-Department of Health and Human Services. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-infected adults and adolescents. (2005)
  192. Panlilio, A. L., Cardo, D. M. Grohskopf, L. A., Heneine, W., and Ross, C. S., Updated U.S. Public Health Service Guidelines for the Management of Occupational Exposures to HIV and Recommendations for Postexposure Prophylaxis. MMWR., 54 (RR09), 1-17 (2005)
  193. Perrillo, R. P., Regenstein, F. G., and Roodman, S. T., Chronic hepatitis B in asymptomatic homosexual men with antibody to the human immunodeficiency virus. Ann. Intern. Med., 105, 382-3 (1986) https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-105-3-382
  194. Perry, C. M. and Faulds, D., Lamivudine: a review of its antiviral activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy in the management of HIV infection. Drugs, 53, 657-680 (1997) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199753040-00008
  195. Perry, C. M. and Noble, S., Didanosine: An updated review of its use in HIV infection. Drugs, 58, 1099-1135 (1999) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199958060-00009
  196. Pesce, A., Taillan, B., and Rosenthal, E., Opportunistic infections and CD4 lymphocytopenia with interferon treatment in HIV-1 infected patients. Lancet., 341, 1597 (1993) https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(93)90736-Z
  197. Pialoux, G., Raffi, F., Brun-Vezinet, F., Meiffredy, V., Flandre, P., Gastaut, J. A., Dellamonica, P., Yeni, P., Delfraissy, J. F., and Aboulker, J. P., A randomized trial of three maintenance regiments given after three months of induction therapy with zidovudine, lamivudine, and indinavir in previously untreated HIV-1-infected patients. N. Engl. J. Med., 339, 1269-1276 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199810293391802
  198. Picard, V., Angelini, E., Maillard, A., Race, E., Clavel, F., Chene, G., Ferchal, F., and Molina, J. M., Comparison of genotypic and phenotypic resistance patterns of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates from patients treated with stavudine and didanosine or zidovudine and lamivudine. J. Infect. Dis., 184, 781-784 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1086/323088
  199. Piroth, L., Duong, M., Quantin, C., Abrahamowicz, M., Michardiere, R., Aho, L. S., Grappin, M., Buisson, M., Waldner, A., Portier, H., and Chavanet, P., Does hepatitis C virus co-infection accelerate clinical and immunological evolution of HIVinfected patients? AIDS., 12, 381-388 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199804000-00006
  200. Piscitelli, S. C. and Gallicano, K. D., Interactions among drugs for HIV and opportunistic infections. N. Engl. J. Med., 344, 984-996 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200103293441307
  201. Piwoz, E. G., Ross, J., and Humphrey, J., Human immunodeficiency virus transmission during breastfeeding: knowledge, gaps, and challenges for the future. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 554, 195-210 (2004)
  202. Pollard, R. B., Robinson, P., and Dransfield, K., Safety profile of nevirapine, a nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin. Therap., 20, 1071-1092 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-2918(98)80105-7
  203. Pomerantz, R. J., How HIV Resists Eradication. Hosp. Pract., 87-101 (1998)
  204. Pramoolsinsup, C., Management of viral hepatitis B. J. Gastroen. Hepatol., 17, S125-S145 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1746.17.s1.3.x
  205. Preston, D. B., Poiesz, B. J., and Loeb, L. A., Fidelity of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. Science, 242, 1168-1171 (1998)
  206. Public Health Task Force recommendations for the use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant women infected with HIV-1 for maternal health and for reducing perinatal HIV-1 transmission in the United States. MMWR., 47(RR-2) 1-30 (1998)
  207. Public Health Service Task Force. Recommendations for Use of Antiretroviral drugs in Pregnant HIV-1-Infected Women for Maternal Health and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV-1 Transmission in the United States. MMWR., 47 (RR-2) 1-55 (2005)
  208. Quaranta, J. F., Delaney, S. R., Alleman, S., Cassuto, J. P., Dellamonica, P., and Allain, J. P., Prevalence of antibody to hepatitis C virus (HCV) in HIV-1-infected patients (nice SEROCO cohort). J. Med. Virol., 42, 29-32 (1994) https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.1890420106
  209. Quinn, T. C., Wawer, M. J., Sewankambo, N., Serwadda, D., Li C., Wabwire-Mangen, F., Meehan, M. O., Lutalo, T., and Gray R. H., Viral load and heterosexual transmission of immunodeficiency virus type 1. N. Engl. J. Med., 342, 921- 929 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200003303421303
  210. Rana, K. Z. and Dudley, M. N., Clinical pharmacokinetics of stavudine. Clin. Pharmacokinet., 33, 276-284 (1997) https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-199733040-00003
  211. Resch, W., Parkin, N., Stuelke, E. L., Watkins, T., and Swanstrom, R., A multiple-site-specific heteroduplex tracking assay as a tool for the study of viral population dynamics. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 98, 176-181 (2001)
  212. Rodriguez-French, A., Boghossian, J., Gray, G. E,. Nadler, J. P., Quinones, A. R., Sepulveda, G. E., Millard, J. M., and Wannamaker, P. G., The NEAT study: a 48-week open-label study to compare the antiviral efficacy and safety of GW433908 versus nelfinavir in antiretroviral therapy-naive HIV-1-infected patients. J. AIDS., 35, 22-32 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1097/00126334-200401010-00003
  213. Ristig, M. B., Crippin, J., Aberg, J. A., Powderly, W. G., Lisker- Melman, M., Kessels, L., and Tebas, P., Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate therapy for chronic hepatitis B in human immunodeficiency virus/hepatitis B virus-coinfected individuals for whom interferon-alpha and lamivudine therapy have failed. J. Infect. Dis., 186, 1844-1847 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1086/345770
  214. Roberts, J. D., Bebenek, K., and Kunkel, T. A., The accuracy of reverse transcriptase from HIV-1. Science, 242, 1171-1173 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2460925
  215. Rockstroh, J. K., Mocroft, A., Soriano, V., Tural, C., Losso, M. H., Horban, A., Kirk, O., Phillips, A., Ledergerber, B., Lundgren, J., and the EuroSIDA Study Group. Influence of Hepatitis C Virus Infection on HIV-1 Disease Progression and Response to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy. J. Infect. Dis., 192, 992-1002 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1086/432762
  216. Rodriguez, M., Berenguer, J., Rodriguez-Rosado, R., Carbo, J., Asensi, V., and Soriano, V., Hepatocellular carcinoma in HIVinfected patients with chronic hepatitis C. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 96, 179-183 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.03374.x
  217. Saag, M. S., Emtricitabine, a new antiretroviral agent with activity against HIV and Hepatitis B Virus. Clin. Infect. Dis., 42, 126-131 (2006) https://doi.org/10.1086/498348
  218. Saag, M. S., Holodniy, M., Kuritzkes, D. R., O'Brien, W. A., Coobs, R., Poscher, M. E., Jacobsen, D. M., Shaw, G. M., Richman, D. D., and Volberding, P. A., HIV viral load markers in clinical practice. Nature. Med., 6, 625-629 (1996)
  219. Sabin, C., Staszewski, S., Phillips, A. Rabenau, H., Cozzi Lepri, A., Weidman, E., and Miller, V., Discordant immunological and virological responses to HAART. Abstract 7th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, San Francisco, U.S.A. (2000)
  220. Saksela, K., Stevens, C. E., Rubinstein, P., Taylor, P. E., and Baltimore, D., HIV-1 messenger RNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells as an early marker of risk for progression to AIDS. Ann. Intern. Med., 123, 641-648 (1995) https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-123-9-199511010-00001
  221. Salmon-Céron, D., Chauvelot-Moachon, L., Abad, S., Silbermann, B., and Sogni, P., Mitochondrial toxic effects and ribavirin. Lancet., 357, 1803-1804 (2001) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04921-7
  222. Samuel, R. and Suh, B., Antiretroviral therapy 2000. Arch. Pharm. Res., 23, 425-437 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02976566
  223. Sarisky, R. T., Non-nucleoside inhibitors of the HCV polymerase. J. Anitmicrob. Chemother., 54, 14-16 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkh319
  224. Schuurman, R., Nijhuis, M., van Leeuwen, R., Schipper, P., de Jong, D., Collis, P., Danner, S. A., Mulder, J., Loveday, C., and Christopherson, C., Rapid changes in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA load and appearance of drugresistant virus populations in persons treated with lamivudine (3TC). J. Infect Dis., 171, 1411-1419 (1995) https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/171.6.1411
  225. Scully, C. and Porter, S., HIV topic update: oro-genital transmission of HIV. Oral Dis., 6, 92-98 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1601-0825.2000.tb00107.x
  226. Shire, N. J. and Sherman, K. E., Management of HBV/HIV coinfected patients. Seminars in Liver Disease, 25 (Suppl 1), 48-57 (2005)
  227. Solomon, R. E., VanRaden, M., Kaslow, R. A., Lyter, D., Visscher, B., Farzadegan, H., and Phair, J., Association of hepatitis B surface antigen and core antibody with acquisition and manifestations of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. Am. J. Public Health., 80, 1475-1478 (1990) https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.80.12.1475
  228. Soriano, V., Sulkowski, M., Bergin, C., Hatzakis, A., Cacoub, P., Katlama, C., Cargnel, A., Mauss, S., Dieterich, D., Moreno, S., Ferrari, C., Poynard, T., and Rockstroh, J., Care of patients with chronic hepatitis C and HIV co-infection: recommendations from the HIV-HCV International Panel. AIDS., 16, 813- 828 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200204120-00001
  229. Soriano, V., Puoti, M., Sulkowski, M., Mauss, S., Cacoub, P., Cargnel, A., Dieterich, D., Hatzakis, A., and Rockstroh, J., Care of patients with hepatitis C and HIV co-infection. Updated recommendations from the HIV-HCV International Panel. AIDS., 18, 1-12 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200401020-00001
  230. Soriano, V., Martin-Carbonero, L., Maida, I., Garcia-Samaniego, J., and Núñez, M., New paradigms in the management of HIV and hepatitis C virus coinfection. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis., 18, 550-560 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1097/01.qco.0000191509.56104.ec
  231. Soto, B., Sanchez-Quijano, A., Rodrigo, L., del Olmo, J. A., Garcia-Bengoechea, M., Hernandez-Quero, J., Rey, C., Abad, M. A., Rodriguez, M., Sales Gilabert, M., Gonzalez F., Miron, P., Caruz, A., Relimpio, F., Torronteras, R., Leal, M., and Lissen, E. Human immunodeficiency virus infection modifies the natural history of chronic parenterally-acquired hepatitis C with an unusually rapid progression to cirrhosis. J. Hepatol., 26, 1-5 (1997)
  232. Spengler, U., Lichterfeld, M., and Rockstroh, J. K., Antiretroviral drug toxicity -- a challenge for the hepatologist? J. Hepatol. 36, 283-294 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-8278(01)00311-7
  233. Squires, K., Lazzarin, A., Gatell, J. M., Powderly, W. G., Pokrovskiy, V., Delfraissy, J. F., Jemsek, J., Rivero, A., Rozenbaum, W., Schrader, S., Sension, M., Vibhagool, A., Thiry, A., and Giordano, M., Comparison of once-daily atazanavir with efavirenz, each in combination with fixed-dose zidovudine and lamivudine, as initial therapy for patients infected with HIV. J. AIDS., 36, 1011-1019 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1097/00126334-200408150-00003
  234. Staszewski, S., Morales-Ramirez, J., Tashima, K. T., Rachlis, A., Skiest, D., Stanford, J., Stryker, R., Johnson, P., Labriola, D. F., Farina, D., Manion, D. J., and Ruiz, N. M., Efavirenz plus zidovudine and lamivudine, efavirenz plus indinavir, and indinavir plus zidovudine and lamivudine in the treatment of HIV-1 infection in adults. N. Engl. J. Med., 341, 1865-1873 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199912163412501
  235. Steel, H. M., Special presentation on aplaviroc-related hepatotoxicity. Program and abstracts of the European AIDS Clinical Society 10th European AIDS Conference; November 17-20, Dublin, Ireland (2005)
  236. Sterling, T. R., Chaisson, R. E., and Moore, R. D., Initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy at CD4+ T lymphocyte counts of >350 cells/mm3: disease progression, treatment durability, and drug toxicity. Clin. Infect. Dis., 36, 812-815 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1086/367934
  237. Sulkowski, M. S., Moore, R. D., Mehta, S. H., Chaisson, R. E., and Thomas, D. L., Hepatitis C and progression of HIV disease. JAMA., 288, 199-206 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.2.199
  238. Tedaldi, E. M., Baker, R. K., Moorman, A. C., Alzola, C. F., Furhrer, J., McCabe, R. E., Wood, K. C., and Holmberg, S. D., HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) Investigators. Influence of coinfection with hepatitis C virus on morbidity and mortality due to human immunodeficiency virus infection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis., 36, 363- 367 (2003) https://doi.org/10.1086/345953
  239. Tenney, D. J., Levine, S. M., Rose, R. E., Walsh, A. W., Weinheimer, S. P., Discoto, L., Plym, M., Pokornowski, K., Yu, C. F., Angus, P., Ayres, A., Bartholomeusz, A., Sievert, W., Thompson, G., Warner, N., Locarnini, S., and Colonno, R., J. Clinical emergence of entecavir-resistant hepatitis B virus requires additional substitutions in virus already resistant to lamivudine. Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother., 48, 3498-5307 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.48.9.3498-3507.2004
  240. Thea, D. M, Steketee, R. W., Pliner, V., Bornschlegel, K., Brown, T., Orloff, S., Matheson, P. B., Abrams, E. J., Bamji, M., Lambert, G., Schoenbaum, E. A., Thomas, P. A., Heagarty, M., and Kalish, M. L., The effect of maternal viral load on the risk of perinatal transmission of HIV-1. AIDS., 11, 437-44 (1997) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199704000-00006
  241. Thio, C. L., Seaberg, E. C., Skolasky, R., Phair, J., Visscher, B., Munoz, A., and Thomas, D. L., for the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. HIV-1, hepatitis B virus, and risk of liver-related mortality in the Multicenter Cohort Study (MACS). Lancet., 360, 1921-1926 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11913-1
  242. Thorne, C. and Newell, M. L., Treatment options for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Cur. Opin. Invest. Drugs., 6, 804-811 (2005)
  243. Torriani, F. J., Rodriguez-Torres, M., Rockstroh, J. K., Lissen, E., Gonzalez-Garcia, J., Lazzarin, A., Carosi, G., Sasadeusz, J., Katlama, C., Montaner, J., Sette, H. Jr., Passe, S., De Pamphilis, J., Duff, F., Schrenk, U. M., and Dieterich, D. T., for the APRICOT Study Group. Peginterferon Alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected patients. N. Engl. J. Med., 351, 438-450 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa040842
  244. Troisi, C. L., Hollinger, F. B., Hoots, W. K., Contant, C., Gill, J., Ragni, M., Parmley, R., Sexauer, C., Gomperts, E., and Buchanan, G., A multicenter study of viral hepatitis in a United States hemophilic population. Blood, 81, 412-418 (1993)
  245. Tuomala, R. E., Shapiro, D. E., Mofenson, L. M., Bryson, Y., Culnane, M., Hughes, M. D., O'Sullivan, M. J., Scott, G., Stek, A. M., Wara, D., and Bulterys, M., Antiretroviral Therapy During Pregnancy and the Risk of an Adverse Outcome. N. Engl. J. Med., 346, 1863-1870 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa991159
  246. Tural, C., Ruiz, L., Holtzer, C., Schapiro, J., Viciana, P., Gonzalez, J., Domingo, P., Boucher, C., Rey-Joly, C., and Clotet, B., for the Havana Study Group. Clinical utility of HIV-1 genotyping and expert advice: the Havana trial. AIDS., 16, 209-218 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200201250-00010
  247. UNAIDS/WHO. Report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic. January (2006)
  248. US Department of Health and Human Services, HIV/AIDS Treatment and Information Service. Safety and toxicity of individual antiretroviral agents in pregnancy, May 17, 2002. In: Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIVinfected adults and adolescents. MMWR., 51(RR7), 1-64 (2002)
  249. Van Ameijden, E. J., van den Hoek, J. A., Mientjes, G. H., and Coutinho, R. A., A longitudinal study on the incidence and transmission patters on HIV, HBV and HCV infection among drug users in Amsterdam. Eur. J. Epidemiol., 9, 255-262 (1993) https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00146260
  250. Van Gemen, B., Van Beuningen, R., and Nabbe, A., A one tube quantitative HIV-1 RNA NASBS nucleic acid amplification assay using electrochemiluminescent (ECL) labeled probes. J. Virolog. Method., 49, 157-168 (1994) https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-0934(94)90040-X
  251. van Leth, F., Phanuphak, P., Ruxrungtham, K., Baraldi, E., Miller, S., Gazzard, B., Cahn, P., Lalloo, U. G., van der Westhuizen, I. P., Malan, D. R., Johnson, M. A., Santos, B. R., Mulcahy, F., Wood, R., Levi, G. C., Reboredo, G., Squires, K., Cassetti, I., Petit, D., Raffi, F., Katlama, C., Murphy, R. L., Horban, A., Dam, J. P., Hassink, E., van Leeuwen, R., Robinson, P., Wit, F. W., and Lange, J. M. 2NN Study team. Comparison of first-line antiretroviral therapy with regimens including nevirapine, efavirenz, or both drugs, plus stavudine and lamivudine: a randomised open-label trial, the 2NN Study. Lancet., 363, 1253-1263 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15997-7
  252. van Heeswijk, R. P., Veldkamp, A. I., Hoetelmans, R. M., Mulder, J. W., Schreij, G., Hsu, A., Lange, J. M., Beijnen, J. H., and Meenhorst, P. L., The steady-state plasma pharmacokinetics of indinavir alone and in combination with a low dose of ritonavir in twice daily dosing regimens in HIV-1- infected individuals. AIDS., 13, F95-99 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199910010-00001
  253. Veldkamp, A. I., van Heeswijk, R. P., Mulder, J. W., Meenhorst, P. L., Schreij, G., van der Geest, S., Lange, J. M., Beijnen, J. H., and Hoetelmans, R. M., Steady-state pharmacokinetics of twice-daily dosing of saquinavir plus ritonavir in HIV-1- infected individuals. J. AIDS., 27, 344-349 (2001)
  254. Vento, S., Di Perri, G., Cruciani, M., Garofano, T., Concia, E., and Bassetti, D., Rapid decline of CD4+ cells after interferon treatment in HIV-1 infection. Lancet., 341, 958–959 (1993) https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(93)91248-K
  255. Vlahov, D., Graham, N., Hoover, D., Flynn, C., Bartlett, J. G., Margolick, J. B., Lyles, C. M., Nelson, K., E., Smith, D., Holmberg, S., and Farzadegan, H., Prognostic indicators for AIDS and infectious disease death in HIV-infected injection drug users- plasma viral load and CD4+ cell count. JAMA., 279, 35-40 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.279.1.35
  256. Walmsley, S., Bernstein, B., King, M., Arribas, J., Beall, G., Ruane, P., Johnson, M., Johnson, D., Lalonde, R., Japour, A., Brun, S., and Sun, E., M98-863 Study Team. Lopinavirritonavir versus nelfinavir for the initial treatment of HIV infection. N. Engl. J. Med., 346, 2039-2046 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa012354
  257. Watts, D. H., Management of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Pregnancy. N. Engl. J. Med., 346, 1879-1891 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra013338
  258. Weinheimer, S., Discotto, L., Friborg, J., Yang, H., and Colonno, R., Atazanavir signature I50L resistance substitution accounts for unique phenotype of increased susceptibility to other protease inhibitors in a variety of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genetic backbones. Antimicrob. Agent. Chemother., 49, 3816-3824 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.49.9.3816-3824.2005
  259. White, K. L., Margot, N. A., Ly, J. K., Chen, J. M., Ray, A. S., Pavelko, M., Wang, R., McDermott, M., Swaminathan, S., and Miller, M. D., A combination of decreased NRTI incorporation and decreased excision determines the resistance profile of HIV-1 K65R RT. AIDS., 19, 1751-1760 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000189851.21441.f1
  260. Winnock, M., Salmon-Céron, D., Dabis, F., and Chêne, G., Interaction between HIV-1 and HCV infections: towards a new entity? J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 53, 936-946 (2004) https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkh200
  261. Wolbach, J. and Capoccia, K., A review of abacavir and efavirenz: new antiretroviral drugs to treat HIV-1 infection. Nurse Practitioner., 24, 81-92 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1097/00006205-199924060-00008
  262. Yerly, S., Perneger, T. V., Hirschel, B., Dubuis, O., Matter, L., Malinverni, R., Furrer, H., and Perrin, L., A critical assessment of the prognostic value of HIV-1 RNA levels and CD4+ cell counts in HIV-infected patients. Arch. Intern. Med., 158, 247- 252 (1998) https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.158.3.247
  263. Ying, C., De Clercq, E., Nicholson, W., Furman, P., and Neyts, J. Inhibition of the replication of the DNA polymerase M550V mutation variant of human hepatitis B virus by adefovir, tenofovir, L-FMAU, DAPD, penciclovir and lobucavir. J. Viral. Hepat., 7, 161-165 (2000) https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2893.2000.00210.x
  264. Young, B., Fischl, M. A., Wilson, H. M., Finn, T. S., Jensen, E. H., DiNubile, M. J., and Zeldin, R. K., Open-label study of a twice-daily indinavir 800-mg/ritonavir 100 mg regimen in protease inhibitor-naive HIV-infected adults. JAIDS., 31, 478- 482 (2002) https://doi.org/10.1097/00126334-200212150-00004
  265. Youle, M., Mocroft, A., and Johnson, M., Lipid profiles in patients on ritonavir/indinavir containing salvage regimens [abstract 24]. Antivir. Ther., 4 (Suppl 2), 22 (1999)
  266. Zhang, Y. M., Imamichi, H., Imamichi, T., Lane, H. C., Falloon, J., Vasudevachari, M. B., and Salzman, N. P., Drug resistance during indinavir therapy is caused by mutations in the protease gene and in its Gag substrate cleavage sites. J. Virol., 71, 6662-6670 (1997)