• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.36 no.1
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• pp.47-59
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• 2020

Scientific analysis was conducted to identify the paint pigments used in the Buseoksa Josadang murals. optical microscopy(OM), X-ray fluorescence(XRF), XRF mapping, scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy(SEM-EDS), and Raman spectroscopy were performed to examine the pigments. The results confirmed that the Josadang murals consist of two paint layers wherein the pigments were distinct for most colors. It was estimated that celadonite, white clay, red ochre, cinnabar and minium, synthetic green pigment containing tin and zinc paratacamite, or botallackite were used in the upper layer. In addition, bone white, celadonite, red ochre, azurite, cinnabar or vermilion, and gold were identified in the lower layer. In addition, as Zn and Sn were detected in the green pigments extracted from the top layer of the paint, it is believed that Josadang murals were repainted over the original paint layer at some point after the 17th century. In addition, white pigments containing calcium phosphate were found in all the colors in the bottom layer, which is the original paint layer. These results are significant because this is the first time that white pigments are found in Korean traditional paintings. Additionally, the information revealed about the pigments in this study will serve as areference for the pigments used in the Goryeo period.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.33 no.4
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• pp.225-239
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• 2017

This study aimed to investigate the chemical properties and production techniques for white wares from the Gwirae-1ri 3rd, Songok-3ri 2nd kiln sites in Kangwon Wonju regions. Further, another aim was to determine the correlation among the materials used to produce the white wares. The analysis of white wares in Kangwon Wonju regions produced the following results. The excavated white wares were analyzed using the Seger formula, and all the samples showed similar clay sources ($RO_2:4.33-5.82$, $RO+R_2O:0.32-0.43$) and glaze sources. Moreover, the white wares were made of host rocks of the same geological origin, according to the results of the rare earth elements analysis. When the crystalline phases of the white wares were investigated via the XRD analysis, quartz and mullite were found in all the samples, and their proportions were similar to each other. Although the firing temperatures for the samples were different, most were fired at a temperature below $1,200^{\circ}C$, with some being fired at temperatures as low as $1,000{\pm}20^{\circ}C$.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.30 no.3
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• pp.249-261
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• 2014

This study aims to examine production technique of white wares from the Guyre-2ri 1st and 2nd kiln sites, Wonju, Gangwon Province and characteristics of the used materials, and to find a correlation among materials of the excavated white wares. X-ray fluorescence sequential spectroscopy(XRF), X-ray diffraction(XRD), Dilatometer and Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry(ICP-MS), Inductively coupled plasma automic emission spectrometer(ICP-AES) were applied to determine the chemical composition, crystalline phase of samples, firing temperatures, trace elements and rare earth elements. White wares from the Guyre-2ri kiln sites contained high contents of coloring oxides and fluxes. Though firing temperature of each sample was different, they were mostly fired at a temperature below $1200^{\circ}C$ and some of them experienced a low temperature of $1000^{\circ}C{\pm}20^{\circ}C$ and a high temperature above $1200^{\circ}C$. When analyzing body crystalline phases of the white wares using the XRD method, quartz and mullite were extracted from all the samples, and the proportions were similar to each other. When analyzing the excavated white wares using the Seger formula, also, all the samples showed similar clay sources and production techniques. Moreover, the white wares were made of host rocks of the same geological origin, according to the result of rare earth elements analysis.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.46 no.2
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• pp.206-219
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• 2013

This study aims to estimate firing temperature and physicochemical properties of the four clay bricks excavated from the Maritime Province of Siberia. Analysis result shows that the specimens are composed of clay, quartz and feldspar, and some specimens include carbonized organic materials which were probably added in order to enhance its physical strength in bricks. Major mineral components of the bricks are quartz, illite and clay minerals. The result identifying the existence of silimanite by XRD suggests that white material of the Koc 1 was painted for a certain purpose. Unlike most specimens which contained hematite, several samples contain Mullite. Such result suggests that some bricks were fired at high temperature. Furthermore, the results from TG analysis which does not display exothermic peak which appears at between $800^{\circ}C$ to $1,000^{\circ}C$ but display endothermic peak at $900^{\circ}C$ and it also confirms that they were exposed at $900^{\circ}C$ or higher.

• Korean Journal of Materials Research
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• v.31 no.11
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• pp.608-613
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• 2021

This study investigated the reaction between clay and Mn. Mn was coated using a manganese sulfate on porcelain plate and sintered from 1,100 ℃ to 1,250 ℃. The body begin to shrink around 950 ℃ with the increase in temperature and rapidly progressed after 1,100 ℃. Shrinkage of celadon body was performed at a lower temperature than for other substrates. Quartz, kaolin, and feldspar were the main crystalline phases of the starting materials, but they became mullite and crystobalite during the firing process, and some formed amorphous glass. When manganese sulfate was applied and fired, manganese oxide was fused, and some manganese oxide reacted with the substrate to show a dense microstructure different from that of the substrate; the substrate had pores. The manganese coated porcelain fired at 1,200 ℃ had L^* values of 55.25, 36.87, and 37.13 for the white ware, celadon body, and white mixed ware, respectively; with a^* values of 4.63, 3.07, and 2.15, and b^* values of 7.93 and 3.98, it was found to be 3.42. This result indicated that the color of the surface was affected during firing by the chemical reaction between the substrate and manganese.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.38 no.4
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• pp.334-346
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• 2022

The manufacturing technique was studied through the structure and material characteristics of the walls and the painting layers of the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva mural of Geungnakjeon Hall, Daewonsa Temple. The mural is painted and connected to the earthen wall and the Junggit, and the wall is composed of wooden laths as a frame, the first and middle layers, the finishing layer, and the painting layer. The first layer, middle layer, and finishing layer constituting the wall were made by mixing weathered soil and sand. It was confirmed that the first layer had a high content of loess below silt, and the finishing layer had a high content of fine-sand and very fine sand. For the painting layer, a ground layer was prepared using soil-based mineral pigments, and lead white, white clay, atacamite, minium, and cinnabar (or vermilion) pigments were used on top of it. The Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva mural was confirmed to belong to a category similar to the soil-made buddhist mural paintings of Joseon Dynasty. However, it shows characteristics such as a high content of fine sand in the finishing layer and overlapping over other colors. Such material and structural characteristics can constitute important information for future mural conservation status diagnoses and conservation treatment plans.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.53 no.2
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• pp.4-23
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• 2020

The purpose of this study was to explore the diversity of Korea's iron casting technology and to examine various casting methods. The study involved a literature review, analysis of artifacts, local investigation of production tools and technology, and scientific analysis of casting and cast materials. Bellows technology, or Bulmi technology, is a form of iron casting technology that uses bellows to melt cast iron before the molten iron is poured into a clay cast. This technology, handed down only in Jeju Island, relies on use of a clay cast instead of the sand cast that is more common in mainland Korea. Casting methods for cast iron pots can be broadly divided into two: sand mold casting and porcelain casting. The former uses a sand cast made from mixing seokbire (clay mixed with soft stones), sand and clay, while the latter uses a clay cast, formed by mixing clay with rice straw and reed. The five steps in the sand mold casting method for iron pot are cast making, filling, melting iron into molten iron, pouring the molten iron into the cast mold, and refining the final product. The six steps in the porcelain clay casting method are cast making, cast firing, spreading jilmeok, melting iron into molten iron, pouring the molten iron, and refining the final product. The two casting methods differ in terms of materials, cast firing, and spreading of jilmeok. This study provided insight into Korea's unique iron casting technology by examining the scientific principles behind the materials and tools used in each stage of iron pot casting: collecting and kneading mud, producing a cast, biscuit firing, hwajeokmosal (building sand on the heated cast) and spreading jilmeok, drying and biyaljil (spreading jilmeok evenly on the cast), hapjang (combining two half-sized casts to make one complete cast), producing a smelting furnace, roasting twice, smelting, pouring molten iron into a cast, and refining the final product. Scientific analysis of the final product and materials involved in porcelain clay casting showed that the main components were mud and sand (SiO₂, Al₂O₃, and Fe₂O₃). The release agent was found to be graphite, containing SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, and K₂O. The completed cast iron pot had the structure of white cast iron, comprised of cementite (Fe₃C) and pearlite (a layered structure of ferrite and cementite).

• Journal of the Korean Crystal Growth and Crystal Technology
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• v.33 no.5
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• pp.174-180
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• 2023

Porcelain (white ware, celadon ware) coated with a ferrous sulfate and ferrous/cobalt sulfate was sintered at 1250℃. The specimens were investigated by HR-XRD, FE-SEM, HR-EDS, and UV-vis spectrophotometer. Through X-ray rietveld quantitative analysis, quartz and mullite were found to be the main phases for white ware, and mullite and plagioclase were found to be the main phases for celadon ware. When the pigment of ferrous/cobalt sulfate was applied, were identified as an andradite phase for celadon ware and a spinel phase for the white ware, and the amorphous phase, respectively. The L^* value, which was the brightness of the specimen, was 72.01, 60.92 for white ware and celadon ware, respectively. The ferrous and ferrous/cobalt pigment coated porcelain had L^* values of 44.89, 52.27 for white ware and celadon ware, respectively; with a^* values of 2.12, 1.40, an d at b^* values of 1.45 and 13.79. As for the color of the specimens, it was found that the L^* value was greatly affected by the white ware, and the b^* value differed greatly depending on the clay. It was thought to be closely related to the production of the secondary phase such as Fe₂O₃ and andradite phase produced in the surface layer.

• Journal of The Korean Society of Grassland and Forage Science
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• v.11 no.1
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• pp.28-28
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• 1991

The investigation of the kinds and density of white grubs in relation to soil texture, forages, yearsafter pasture establishment, and management methods in pasture were surveyed in Livestock ExperimentStation, Suwon by digging 5 sites($100cm{\times}100cm$) in a month from April to October during 1985.The results obtained were summarized as follows; No difference was observed in white grub speciesdivesity in relation to soil texture, forages, years after pasture establishment, and management methodof pasture, but the abundance of each species was different from the environmental factors.1. On the soil texture; Miridiba kureana, Popillia uchidai, Holotrichia mmosa and Holotrichia diomphalia occurred in the clay loam field, whereas Anomala corpulenta and Anomala mfocuprea in the sandy loam. 2. On the forage; the density of all species except Popillia uchidai was higher in grass than legume. 3. On the years after pasture extablishment; both of the species diversity and abundance were increased 3 years after pasture establishment and maximized at the 5th year.4. On the management methods of pasture; species diversity and abundance were higher in meadows thanpastures.

• Journal of The Korean Society of Grassland and Forage Science
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• v.11 no.1
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• pp.38-42
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• 1991

The investigation of the kinds and density of white grubs in relation to soil texture, forages, years after pasture establishment, and management methods in pasture were surveyed in Livestock Experiment Station, Suwon by digging 5 sites($100cm{\times}100cm$) in a month from April to October during 1985. The results obtained were summarized as follows; No difference was observed in white grub species divesity in relation to soil texture, forages, years after pasture establishment, and management method of pasture, but the abundance of each species was different from the environmental factors.1. On the soil texture; Miridiba kureana, Popillia uchidai, Holotrichia mmosa and Holotrichia diomphalia occurred in the clay loam field, whereas Anomala corpulenta and Anomala mfocuprea in the sandy loam. 2. On the forage; the density of all species except Popillia uchidai was higher in grass than legume. 3. On the years after pasture extablishment; both of the species diversity and abundance were increased 3 years after pasture establishment and maximized at the 5th year.4. On the management methods of pasture; species diversity and abundance were higher in meadows than pastures.