• MISULJARYO - National Museum of Korea Art Journal
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• v.100
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• pp.22-49
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• 2021

Bowonsa Temple (普願寺) is located to the north of Gayasan Mountain in Unsan-myeon, Seosan-si, Chungcheongnam-do Province. The cultural properties it enshrines were produced during the late Unified Silla and early Goryeo periods, and include an Iron Seated Buddha. The Japanese Government-General of Korea Museum planned a survey on historical remains in Chungcheongnam-do Province during the early Japanese colonial era, and a field survey was conducted at the Bowonsa Temple site in 1916 (Taishō 5). During this survey, the sculpture of the Iron Seated Buddha (knee: width 212 cm x thickness 167 cm) was found enshrined in a hut. The sculpture was moved to Gyeongbokgung Palace in the following year. However, it is clear that the colossal Iron Seated Buddha was being housed at the Bowonsa Temple site at the start of the Japanese colonial era. This Iron Seated Buddha is presumed to have been produced in 955 by State Preceptor Beopin Tanmun (法印國師 坦文, 900-975). Tanmun was born into an influential family that produced many high officials. He became a leading figure in the Hwaeom (Flower Garland) school of Buddhism under the patronage of King Taejo. He also led Buddhist events at the Goryeo royal court during the reigns of King Hyejong (惠宗, r. 943-945) and King Jeongjong (定宗, r. 945-949). With the emergence of Gyunyeo (均如, 923-973), who was sponsored by Queen Daemok (大穆王后, dates unknown) of the Hwangbo clan (皇甫氏), Tanmun was transferred to Bowonsa Temple far from Kaesong. However, even while there Tanmun strengthened his ties with his supporters under the patronage of the Chungju Yu clan. He appears to have produced this colossal sculpture of Iron Seated Buddha as a prayer for longevity and a happy life for King Gwangjong (光宗, r. 949-975). The inscription on the Stele of State Preceptor Beopin at Bowonsa Temple Site that reads "[I] created a Buddha triad in gold" also suggests the Iron Seated Buddha was produced at Bowonsa Temple. This Iron Seated Buddha is thought to have been enshrined originally in a hall at Building Site No. 3 within the Bowonsa Temple precinct. Since excavations at the temple site have revealed that the temple's main hall was erected in the Joseon period, the Iron Seated Buddha might have been enshrined in a different hall at the time of its creation. It is likely that the sculpture was placed in a hall at Building Site No. 3 since Goryeo-era roof tiles and porcelain have been frequently excavated there and the remains of a square Buddhist altar have survived at the site. At the time of its creation, the Iron Seated Buddha was likely enshrined in a Goryeo-era hall at Building Site No. 3 but was transferred to the main hall during a rebuilding project undertaken at Bowonsa Temple in the Joseon period.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.26 no.2
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• pp.43-52
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• 2017

While going into troops for writing in the vignette style(小品文) in opposition to the Classical Chinese(古文), Yi Ok stopped by Songgwangsa Temple in Wanju. The things he felt during this stop were recorded in the Temple Chapter("寺觀") written in 1795. Therefore, the present dissertation evaluates the Songgwangsa Temple of the time based on this Temple Chapter. Data in the Temple Chapter draws attention to the fact that it records the layout of the temple in detail. Thus the study was able to confirm the change in layout by reviewing relevant records about repair. This reveals that the form of layout in general has been maintained although there were changes involving the relocation of the buildings and their names. Furthermore, the original Buddhist building was changed to a quarter for the monks. Also, in terms of layout after the 18th century, there are frequent name changes of the Myeongbujeon(冥府殿) and Nahanjeon(羅漢殿). After two repairs, in order to find the appearance of a Daeungjeon(Main Buddhist hall) with a two-storied structure of five bays at the front, the study evaluated the Geugnakjeon at Muryangsa Temple and the Daeungbojeon at Magoksa Temple. The evaluation revealed that the 'Jeol' used in the Temple Chapter were small pillars erected on a ridgepole just like the Geugnakjeon at Muryangsa Temple, and that the angle rafters were installed to corner bays in rectangular form. The intellectual Yi Ok left behind invaluable architectural data that reveals the Songgwangsa Temple of the 18th century.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.47 no.3
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• pp.24-41
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• 2014

Since the celadons excavated from the Son-gok 2-ri 4th kiln site are located in the Beopcheon temple site and at close range, the similarity to the celadons excavated from the Beopcheon temple site is being raised. Thus, this study examined the correlation using a natural-scientific method. In this study, historical ceramic properties of total 19 celadons were examined and they were scientifically analyzed. First of all, according to the scientific analysis, chemical compositions of celadon clay showed a dispersed distribution at RO2 3.79-7.77mole and RO+R2O 0.33-0.49mole. When the microstructure was analyzed, most celadons excavated from the Beopcheon temple site, Wonju, which are estimated to be used in real life, had a favorable state, and some celadons from the Son-gok 2-ri 4th kiln site were found not to be glazed and sintered properly. When analyzing body crystalline phases of the celadons using the XRD method, quartz and mullite were extracted from all of the samples. And corundum was extracted from sg4 sample. Though firing temperature of each sample was different, they were mostly fired to temperatures between 1150 and $1200^{\circ}C$ and some of them experienced a low temperature of $1100^{\circ}C$ or a high temperature above $1200^{\circ}C$. Various chemical compositions and producing techniques were observed in the celadons from the Beopcheon temple site and Son-gok 2-ri 4th kiln site and it is hard to assure that the Son-gok 2-ri 4th kiln site was the production kiln site of the celadons used in the Beopcheon temple site. But according to the analysis of rare earth elements, some of the celadons from the Beopcheon temple site and Son-gok 2-ri 4th kiln site displayed a distribution pattern with certain regularity and this implies there is a possibility that the raw materials used in producing the ceramics might have come from the same origin. From the perspective of ceramic history, the celadons excavated from the Beopcheon temple site and Son-gok 2-ri 4th kiln site were produced using the same molding and sintering technique. Also, it is estimated that they were produced in the 12th or 13th century, judging from the overall shapes and patterns of the celadons.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.10 no.1 s.13
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• pp.31-37
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• 2001

The metallurgical investigation of four lumps of bronze from the third building site of the northern workshop site at the Neungsan-ri temple site in Buyeo was performed. The microstructures of a section of sample was observed by SEM and qualitative and quantitative analysis of the sample was performed by EDS. The results are as follows: Sample 1 of the lump of bronze from northern workshop site in the third building site at Neungsan-ri temple site and sample 2 are speculated to be low-quality bronze resulting from refinery of matte which formed on the process of bronze refinery. Sample 3 is speculated as a lump of bronze which is one of Cu-Sn system and the one made by alloy only with pure bronze and tin on the process of bronze refinery. Sample 4 is confirmed as a lump of bronze which is one of Cu-Sn-Pb system from alloy of tin and lead into pure bronze. It is believed that the third building site at Neungsan-ri temple site in Buyeo produced bronze matte by refinery of copper ore or produced low-quality bronze by melting matte imported from outside.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.23 no.4
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• pp.81-90
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• 2014

This paper aimed to identify the variation of layout in Hwangnyoungsa buddhist temple site based on studying published the excavation research paper and texts related to layout. According to earlier studies, in 1st construction period(553~569) of Hwangnyoungsa, there were trisection spaces with one main hall and two corridors in inner part and then in 2nd period(584~645), unified one. But actually trisection spaces had been maintained until the middle part of 8th century. And in each space there was the main hall with large yard. That is the 2nd period layout of Hwangnyoungsa. For the attainment this result, each building remains are judged under duplicated situation which one was the previous and next by consideration of the construction condition and special features of foundation. Although the meaning of trisection system of Hwangnyoungsa is similar with the layout of ancient palace, it could be said to derive from accumulation excavation research in Silla's archeological site and such studies.

• Journal of the Korean Geographical Society
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• v.47 no.6
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• pp.809-824
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• 2012

Stone cultural heritages quantitatively as well as qualitatively occupy a large proportion in the designated heritages in Korea. The Stone Buddha statue in the Gulbulsa temple site, designated as the No. 121 treasure in 1935, is located in the southwestern slope of Mt. Sogeumgang, Dongcheon-dong, Gyeongju-si, Gyeongbuk Province and Buddhist images are sculptured on four sides of a 3.5m-tall gigantic rock. The damage states result from the weathering degree and indicate high correlation with the water contents. The water contents in the Stone Buddha of Gulbulsa temple site are highest at the east side and then decrease in order of north, south and west sides. These are proportional to the durations of sunshine. Moreover, the Stone Buddha of Gulbulsa temple site with dense joints, repaired areas and vegetated areas by lichens shows high water contents and damage states.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.25 no.5
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• pp.7-14
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• 2016

The architectural influence from the Yuan had impact on the Goryeo Dynasty in earnest during Yuan intervention period in the 14th century. The representative examples which were influenced by the Yuan architecture are the Eungjinjeon in Seongbulsa(成佛寺) temple, the ten-story stone pagoda of Gyeoncheonsa(敬天寺) temple site, the Bogwangjeon in Simwonsa(心源寺) temple, the Hoeamsa(檜巖寺) temple and so on. Notwithstanding the changes of relationship between two countries, it can be comprehended that there was a selective acceptance of the Yuan architectural peculiarities in Goryeo Dynasty. It means that the adoption of foreign culture in Korea has not been inevitable from the unilateral demand, but been autonomous by perceiving as the advanced culture. This tendency was maintained even though the government had been changed.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Rural Architecture
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• v.18 no.1
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• pp.67-74
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• 2016

Establishing a renewal plan and practical use of Jungam temple, which exists natural monuments, including national treasures and Gangwondo cultural materials, at Jungseon is as important as anything else. To discuss the renewal plan and the practical use of Jungam temple, this thesis is composed with the next series of processes. First, this thesis presents examining a relationship between Jajang, who was a buddhist monk and caused a departure point of foundation of the temple, and Jungam temple is necessary; thus, the relationship of his architectural consciousness and Jungam temple was showed in this thesis. Second, this thesis demonstrates present conditions for extant facilities and features of the space structure for Jungam temple to look into architectural characteristics of Jungam temple. Third, this thesis shows preservation of Jungam temple because this temple is the historic cultural resource; in addition, this thesis explains restoring of lost elements for points, repairing shipments regarding the whole area of preservation targets, expansion of the area nearby historic cultural resources to make plans for maintaining Jungam temple. Finally, this thesis concludes the final result of Jungam temple to work towards becoming the contemporarily historic cultural resource by designating Jungam temple as the historic site and suggesting energization by public participation and experience programs to continuously manage Jungam temple.

• Journal of Contemporary Eastern Asia
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• v.10 no.2
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• pp.35-40
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• 2011

The recent listing of Preah Vihear Temple as a World Heritage Site has awakened a longtime simmering border dispute between Thailand and Cambodia over a few square kilometers surrounding the ancient Khmer Temple. While the listing of the site by UNESCO was expected to revive the economy of the impoverished border towns near the temple due to the increased tourism and funding for the preservation of the archeological site, it has had the opposite effect due to the sharp increase in violent conflict carried out by the armed forces and nationalist activists from both sides. Military skirmishes and violent protests have brought the local economy to a halt in addition to causing considerable physical damage to the local infrastructure and to the local transnational network of ethnic Kui, local business owners, Khmer and Thai villagers. This paper shows how the dispute is viewed and undertaken by three distinct communities involved in the conflict, the militaries, the metropolitan political elites and activists, and the local villagers. The three communities represent three different cultures of conflict with different interests and most importantly with differential access to the media and official representations of the dispute.

• Journal of Korean Association for Spatial Structures
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• v.14 no.2
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• pp.41-50
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• 2014

The stone pagoda of Mireuk temple site is currently restoring through the repairing process. This stone pagoda has the various construction types in the inner and outer space. Therefore, the stress concentration and structural behavior need to be considered through the analysis of various construction patterns. To this end, this study presents the structural modelling and analysis considering the discrete element analysis technique to solve the discontinuum behavior between the stone elements. Also, this study performs the structural performance evaluation through the various design variables for the safety of stone pagoda. Through the analysis results, we can find out the small stress concentration in the several members. But, because the stresses and displacements are relatively small, we can secure the safety of the whole structure.