• 대한지역사회영양학회지
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• 제23권4호
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• pp.333-340
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• 2018

Objectives: This study was conducted to analyze the salinity of representative Korean foods high in sodium to generate data for use as a fundamental resource for setting salinity standards in foods. Methods: A total of 480 foods from 16 representative Korean foods high in sodium were collected from 10 households, 10 industry foodservice establishments, and 10 Korean restaurants in four regions (Capital area, Chungcheong Province, Gyeongsang Province, and Jeolla Province) and analyzed for salinity. Results: Among the foods, stir-fried anchovies (4.07~4.45%) showed the highest salinity, followed by pickled onion (1.86~2.62%), cabbage kimchi (1.83~2.2%), braised burdock and lotus root (1.79~2.17%), and sliced radish kimchi (1.78~1.89%) (p<0.001). The salinity of kimchi from home meals (2.2%) was significantly higher than that of foodservice (1.83%) and restaurant (1.93%) kimchi (p<0.05). Salinity in each group of food was highest in kimchi (1.83~2.04%), followed by braised dishes (1.54~1.78%), steamed dishes (1.0~1.22%), stir-fried dishes (1.02~1.18%), and soup or stew (0.74~1.02%) (p<0.001). The salinity of soup and stew from restaurants (1.02%) was significantly higher than that of home meal (0.84%) and foodservice (0.74%) soup and stew. Conclusions: Determination of the salinity of representative Korean foods known to be high in sodium by eating place is expected to be useful to establishing guidelines for reduction of salinity.

• 한국식품조리과학회지
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• 제31권4호
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• pp.465-476
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• 2015

The purpose of this study was to develop sodium reduced foods for 10 representative high sodium foods often served in the food service industry, and to conduct sensory evaluation on the foods. The foods are kimchi, cucumber salad, banquet noodle, seaweed soup, ahuk soup, pork kimchi stew, red pepper paste pork chops, beef bulgogi, grilled mackerel and saury stew selected based on data from the 2010 national health and nutrition examination survey. The sodium contents of chinese cabbage kimchi were 688.1 mg in the control, 587.3 mg in the 15% reduced sodium sample group (level 1), and 486.5 mg in the 30% reduced sodium sample group (level 2). The corresponding sodium contents of cucumber salad were 406.4 mg, 345.5 mg, and 284.6 mg. The sodium contents of banquet noodle were 1080.2 mg, 912.2 mg, and 765.8 mg, respectively. The sodium contents of seaweed soup were 459.4 mg, 392.1 mg, and 333.0 mg, respectively. The sodium contents of ahuk soup were 615.3 mg, 534.9 mg, and 434.4 mg respectively. The sodium contents of pork kimchi stew were 1156.2 mg, 988.3 mg, and 820.2 mg respectively. The sodium contents of grilled mackerel were 624.6 mg, 557.4 mg, and 456.9 mg respectively. The sodium contents of red pepper paste pork chops were 723.7 mg, 615.0 mg, and 505.3 mg, respectively. The sodium contents of beef bulgogi were 678.3 mg, 561.9 mg, and 473.3 mg, respectively. The sodium contents of saury stew were 676.0 mg, 574.6 mg, and 470.9 mg respectively. Sensory evaluation was conducted with a total of 30 samples consisting of 10 control food groups, 15%, and 30% reduced sodium food groups. Results showed sodium reduction up to level 1 or 2 in chinese cabbage kimchi, cucumber salad, pork kimchi stew, red pepper paste pork chops, beef bulgogi, grilled mackerel and saury stew. However, the soups and noodles showed significant differences between the control and the 15% reduced sodium (level 1) food groups, specifically in banquet noodle, seaweed soup, ahuk soup.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• 제50권6호
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• pp.655-663
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• 2017

본 연구는 전국 4권역 (수도권, 충청 강원권, 경상권, 전라권) 10개 지역의 가정, 단체급식소와 외식 음식 중 고나트륨 한식 대표 음식 16종, 총 480개 음식의 나트륨 함량을 분석하여, 나트륨 저감화 방향을 제시하고, 나트륨 함량 기준치 설정을 위한 기초자료로 활용하고자 하였다. 음식군별 100 g 당 나트륨 함량은 가정식, 단체급식, 외식 모두 김치류와 조림류에서 가장 높았고 (p < 0.001), 고나트륨 한식 대표 음식 100 g 당 나트륨 함량은 멸치볶음(1,896.6 mg)이 가장 높았고, 그 다음으로 우엉 연근조림(820.6 mg)과 양파장아찌 (809.3 mg)였다 (p < 0.001). 그러나 1인분 나트륨 함량은 가정식에서는 돼지갈비찜/찜닭(1,429.6 mg)이 가장 높았고 (p < 0.001), 단체급식에서는 비빔밥 (1,074.1 mg)과 돼지갈비찜/찜닭 (838.8 mg)이 가장 높았으며 (p < 0.001), 외식에서는 육개장 (3,273.2 mg)과 동태찌개 (2,930.2 mg)의 1인분 나트륨 함량이 가장 높았다 (p < 0.001). 외식의 국 찌개 탕류의 100 g 당 나트륨 함량 및 1인분 나트륨 함량은 가정식과 단체급식 음식보다 유의하게 높았다 (p < 0.01, p < 0.001). 이상의 결과 100 g 당 나트륨 함량은 김치류와 조림류에서 가장 높은 것으로 나타났으며, 1인분 나트륨 함량은 비빔밥, 국 찌개 탕류와 찜류 등 장류를 이용한 음식에서 높은 것으로 나타났고, 외식의 국 찌개 탕류의 나트륨 함량이 가정식과 단체급식에 비하여 높은 것으로 나타났다. 따라서 본 연구는 나트륨 저감화의 방향이 장류 및 김치류의 저염화가 우선시 되어야 하며, 외식의 국물류의 염도를 낮추고, 1인분량을 줄이려는 노력이 필요함을 시사한다. 본 연구의 전국 가정식, 단체급식, 외식 음식 고나트륨 한식 대표음식의 나트륨 함량 분석 결과는 추후 나트륨 저감화 기준치를 제시하기 위한 기초자료로 활용될 수 있을 것으로 사료된다.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• 제52권2호
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• pp.185-193
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• 2019

본 연구는 나트륨 저감화를 위한 나트륨 함량과 염도 기준치를 제시하기 위하여 국내 장류 4종과 고나트륨 한식대표 음식 16종에 대하여 전국 4개 권역, 10개 지역의 가정식, 단체급식과 외식 음식의 1인 분량, 나트륨 함량과 염도를 분석하였고, 그 결과를 바탕으로 가정식과 단체급식을 위한 나트륨 및 염도의 저감 기준치를 제안하였다. 장류의 저감화 염도 기준으로 간장 12%, 된장 9%, 고추장 5%, 쌈장 6% 이하로 제안하였고, 장류 100 g의 나트륨 함량 기준은 간장 4,500 mg 이하, 된장 3,500 mg 이하, 고추장 2,000 mg 이하, 쌈장 2,500 mg 이하로 제안하였다. 음식군별 나트륨 저감 염도는 국 탕 찌개류에서는 맑은 국류 0.5%, 맑은 탕류가 0.6%, 토장국류, 일반 탕류 및 찌개류 0.7%, 토장찌개류 0.8%로 제안하였다. 어육류의 찜류와 볶음류는 0.9% 이하, 조림류는 1.0% 이하, 채소류를 포함한 기타 조림류는 1.5% 이하, 장아찌류, 배추김치와 총각김치는 모두 1.5% 이하, 건어물 볶음류는 4.0% 이하로 제안하였다. 음식군별 1인분 나트륨 함량 저감 기준은 맑은 국 400 mg 이하, 토장국 500 mg 이하, 맑은 탕류 400 mg 이하, 일반 탕류 550 mg 이하, 토장찌개류 600 mg 이하, 일반 찌개류 450 mg이하, 어육류 찜류 600 mg 이하, 어육류 볶음류 450 mg 이하, 건어물 볶음류 250 mg 이하, 어육류 조림류 350 mg 이하, 채소 조림류 150 mg 이하, 장아찌류, 김치류 (배추김치와 총각김치)는 200 mg 이하로 제안하였다. 본 연구에서는 제안한 장류의 염도와 100 g 당 나트륨 저감 기준 및 고나트륨 한식대표 음식의 1인 분량 및 1인분 나트륨 함량과 염도 저감 기준은 가정식과 단체급식의 저염 조리 시 가이드가 될 것이며, 범국민 나트륨 저감화 교육자료로도 활용되어 나트륨 섭취 저감화 실현에 도움이 될 것으로 사료된다.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• 제8권6호
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• pp.719-723
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• 2014

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: South Korean's sodium consumption level is more than twice the upper limit level suggested by the WHO. Steep increases in the prevalence of hypertension and cardiovascular disease in Korea necessitate more effective sodium reduction programs. This study was conducted in order to compare sodium intake-related eating behaviors and key psychosocial factors according to age group and gender. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Using an online survey, a total of 1,564 adults (20-59 years old) considered to be geographically representative of South Korea were recruited and surveyed. The major outcomes were perceived behaviors, knowledge, intentions, and self-efficacy related to sodium intake. RESULTS: The results show that perceived behavior and level of self-efficacy related to low sodium consumption differed by age and gender. Female participants showed better behavior and intention towards low sodium intake than male counterparts. Young participants in their 20s showed the lowest intention to change their current sodium intake as well as lowest self-efficacy measures. CONCLUSIONS: Future sodium reduction interventions should be developed with tailored messages targeting different age and gender groups. Specifically, interventions can be planned and implemented at the college level or for workers in their early career to increase their intention and self-efficacy as a means of preventing future health complications associated with high sodium intake.

• 한국식품영양학회지
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• 제30권1호
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• pp.166-174
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• 2017

The purpose of this study was to compare dietary self-efficacy for sodium intake reduction and dietary behaviors by eating areas. Subjects (797 males and 767 females) were classified according to perceived dietary habit levels related to sodium intake (lowest: ${\leq}10$ (n=434), low: $11{\sim}{\leq}13$ (n=471), high: $14{\sim}{\leq}15$ (n=360), highest: $16{\leq}$ (n=299)) using an online survey with a sample that was geographically representative of the population. The highest group was significantly younger and had a higher student proportion than the lowest group. Dining contexts regarding home led to a significantly higher sodium intake in the highest group, but it was eating out for the lowest group. The highest group had a significantly lower intention to reduce sodium intake compared to the lowest group. In the home cooked meals, the highest group displayed a significantly lower cooking frequency, less effort with respect to a low sodium diet and cooking habits related to sodium intake as compared to the lowest group. Also, regarding eating out and food service, the highest group exhibited significantly lower efforts and dietary behaviors to reduce sodium intake than the lowest group. The dietary score for sodium reduction behavior in the highest group was significantly lower compared to the lowest group, for home cooked meals, eating out, as well as food service. Thus, dietary guidelines and nutrition education for the reduction of sodium intake by eating areas need to be developed and provided.

• 한국식품저장유통학회지
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• 제24권6호
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• pp.771-777
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• 2017

된장은 대두를 주원료로 하는 한국의 대표적인 전통발효 식품임이나, 국민건강영양조사에서 고나트륨을 가지는 식품군에 분류되었다. 각종 질병의 원인이 될 수 있는 나트륨 과다섭취에 대한 저나트륨 된장의 개발이 필요한 실정으로, 품질에 크게 영향이 없이도 나트륨 함량이 적은 장류의 개발은 지속적으로 연구되어야 하는 과제이다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 나트륨 함량을 12.5%-45%까지 저감하도록 실험을 설계하여 적용하여 된장 담금을 진행하였으며, 그 품질적 특성을 분석하고자 하였다. 나트륨의 저감화가 된장의 관능적 품질에 영향을 미치는지 pH, 염도 및 수분, 나트륨함량, 색도, 아미노산성 질소함량, 유리아미노산, 구성아미노산조성을 평가하여, 그 특성을 비교 분석하였다. 나트륨의 저감화는 pH와 수분, 염도에 크게 영향을 미치지 않았으며, 대조구와 같은 범위에서의 품질을 유지하였다. 나트륨함량은 실제로 비례적으로 감소되었으며, 아미노산성 질소는 500 mg%수준이었다. 대량으로 된장업체에서 제조한 25% 저염된 된장의 대체소재를 사용하는 것은 최종 된장의 나트륨함량을 줄이면서도 된장의 품질에 큰 영향을 미치지 않을 것으로 사료된다.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• 제39권8호
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• pp.841-849
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• 2006

This study compared the nutritional quality of Korean adults's consumption of lunch prepared at home, commercial places, and institutions. The one day food intake data collected via 24-hour recall in the 2001 National Health and Nutrition Survey were analyzed. Individuals with 19-64 years of age were selected (n = 5,756). Sampling weights in the Survey were used to generate nationally representative estimates. Lunch was categorized into three groups according to the place where the lunch was prepared. home, commercial places, and institutions such as schools and work places. Comparison among the three groups was made for 19-39 years old men (n = 1,387) and women (n =1,572) and 40-64 years old men (n = 1,364) and women (1,433), respectively. The lunch prepared away from home contained more calories. The lunch prepared commercially was higher in calories percentages from fat than that prepared either at home or at institutions. Across the age and gender groups, lunch prepared at home contribute a high level of sodium intake. Among individuals with 40-64 years of age, but not those with 19-39 years of age, lunch prepared commercially was as sodium dense as that prepared at home. Among individuals with 19-39 years of age, the sodium density of lunch prepared commercially was about the same as that prepared at institutional food service of which the menus were planned by dieticians. Such differences in nutritional quality among meals prepared at home, commercial places, and institutions should be considered and applied for the content development of nutrition education and policy.

• 대한지역사회영양학회지
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• 제17권3호
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• pp.341-352
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• 2012

It is well established that excessive sodium intake is related to a higher incidence of chronic diseases such as hypertension, stroke, coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease and gastric cancer. Although the upper limit of the current sodium intake guideline by WHO is set at 2,000 mg/day for adults, sodium intake of Koreans is well over 4,700 mg/capita/day implying an urgent need to develop and implement sodium intake reduction policy at the national level. This study investigated the cost-effectiveness of the sodium intake reduction policy, for the first time, in Korea. Analyses were performed using most recent and representative data on national health insurance statistics, healthcare utilization, employment information, disease morbidity/mortality, etc. The socioeconomic benefits of the policy, resulting from reduced morbidity of those relevant diseases, included lower medical expenditures, transportation costs, caregiver cost for inpatients and income losses. The socioeconomic benefits from diminished mortality included reductions in earning losses and welfare losses caused by early deaths. It is estimated that the amount of total benefits of reducing sodium intake from 4.7 g to 3.0 g is 12.6 trillion Korean Won; and the size of its cost is 149 billion Won. Assuming that the effect of sodium intake reduction would become gradually evident over a 5-year period, the implied rate of average return to the sodium reduction policy is 7,790% for the following 25 years, suggesting a very high cost-effectiveness. Accordingly, development and implementation of a mid-to-long term plan for a consistent sodium intake reduction policy is extremely beneficial and well warranted.

• 대한지역사회영양학회지
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• 제21권5호
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• pp.463-476
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• 2016

Objectives: Environmental, social and personal factors influence eating patterns. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between unhealthy food outlets within a residential area and obesity using nationally representative Korean survey data and data from the Census on Establishments. Methods: Data on the food intakes and socioeconomic variables of a total of 9,978 adults aged ${\geq}19$ years were obtained from the 2013-2014 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Geographic locations of restaurants were obtained from the 2013 Census on Establishments in Korea. Administrative area was categorized into tertiles of count of unhealthy food outlets based on the distribution of number of unhealthy food outlets among all urban (Dong) and rural (Eup or Myun) administrative districts in Korea. Multilevel logistic regressions model were used to assess the association between the number of unhealthy food outlets and obesity. Results: People living in the district with the highest count of unhealthy food outlets had higher intakes of fat (45.8 vs. 44.4 g/day), sodium (4,142.6 vs. 3,949.8 mg/day), and vitamin A (753.7 vs. $631.6 {\mu}gRE/day$) compared to those living in the district with the lowest count of unhealthy food outlets. A higher count of unhealthy food outlets was positively associated with frequent consumption of instant noodles, pizza, hamburgers and sandwiches, sweets and sour pork or pork cutlets, fried chicken, snacks, and cookies. Higher exposure to unhealthy food outlets was associated with increased odds of obesity (1st vs. 3rd tertile; OR 1.689; 95% CI 1.098-2.599). Conclusions: A high count of unhealthy food outlets within a residential area is positively associated with the prevalence of obesity in Korea. The results suggest that food environmental factors affects the health outcomes and interventions aiming to restrict the availability of unhealthy food outlets in local neighborhoods may be a useful obesity prevention strategy.