• Applied Biological Chemistry
• /
• v.20 no.1
• /
• pp.66-80
• /
• 1977

This research was carried as a part of the basic study, in which the aptitude of theKorean oak varieties as barrels for aging apple fine spirits was investigated, and thefollowing results were obtained. 1. Following was the result of the chemical analysis of the fruits which are now mass-produced and can be used as a substitute for raw materials for wine production. Apple (Malus pumila Miller var. domestica Schneider) : Total sugar. total acid, volatile acid and pectin of Jonathan (Hong-og) were 13.95%, 0.46%, 0.012%, 0.20% respectively. Total sugar, total acid, volatile acid and pectin of Ralls (Koog-kwang) were 13.35%, 0.43%, 0.011%, 0.45% respectively. 2. Because of low yield of apple juice due to cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose which are present besides sugars, acids in apples, the apple juice were treated with xylanase of Aspergillus niger SUAFM-430, cellulase and pectinase of Aspergillus niger SUAFM-6. This treatment increased the yield of apple juice. And the apple juice was sterilized by adding potassium metabisulfite $(K_2S_20_5)$ and Saccharomyces cerevisae var. ellipsoideus Rasse Johannisberg II (SUAFM-1018) as a cultivation yeast, which has a strong fermentation power was used to ferment. The yield of apple wine based on raw material was 86-87%. The amount of ethanol, extract and methanol obtained from Jonathan and Ralls were 13.5%, 5.4%, 0.04-0.05% respectively. 3. Wines were distilled for two times by the pot still method to make fine spirits. The yield of fine spirits from apple wine mash was 86.6%, and the pH of fine spirits from Jonathan and Ralls were 4.1, 4.2 respectively. 4. The oak chips made of inner part or outer part of 24 Korean oak varieties were used to select the barrel for aging fine spirits. Two oak chips (one oak chip: $1{\times}1{\times}5cm$) of the inner part or of the outer part of each oak variety were dipped into 300 ml of fine spirits, which was bottled in 640ml beer bottle, and followed aging. The colors, flavors and tastes of the fine spirits were checked during 6 months. A. As a criterion for the first screening of oak barrels for aging fine spirits, the rate five of color extraction was determined. The oak chips showed good results in their order as follows and the best 5 varieties were selected. Gal-cham: Quercus aliena Blume (Inner part), Gul-cham: Quercus variabilis Blume (Outer part), Gal-chain: Quercus aliena Blume (Outer part), Jol-cham: Quercus serrata Thumb (Inner and Outer part). Sin-gal-cham: Quercus mongolica Fisher (Outer and Inner part) Sang-su-ri: Quercus acutissima Carruthers (Outer and Inner part) B. To find out the influence of aging temperature on aging, apple fine spirits were aged by dipping each oak chip at room temperature $(24-25^{\circ}C)$) and $45^{\circ}C$. Aging at $45^{\circ}C$ gave the best result followed aging at $30^{\circ}C$ and then at room temperature. C. Apple fine spirits was aged for six months by dipping oak chips in Erlenmeyer flasks and was irradiated with U.V light. The U.V irradiation enhanced the aging effect by nearly two times, compared with the aging without U.V irradiation. D. In aging apple fine spirits by dipping two oak chips, it was observed that the extent of the extraction of most components of oak chips were strongly dependent upon the pH of fine spirits. E. Oak chips of five selected oak varieties and a Limousin white oak from France as a control were used. Each apple fine spitits was dipped by two oak chips, and was aged at room temperature $(24-25^{\circ}C)$, $30^{\circ}C$, $45^{\circ}C$, and with the U.V irradiation at room temperature shaking every week. After six months of aging, the panel test of these aged fine spirits (Young Brandy) showed the following result. Young brandy of apples aged at $45^{\circ}C$ by dipping oak chips of Gal-chain was almost as the fine spirits which were aged at room temperature by dipping Limousin white oak chips from France. Young brandy of with U.V. irradiation at room temperature which were aged by dipping oak chips of Gal-chain was a little worse than that from the fine spirits aged at room temperature by dipping Limousin white oak chips from France. And so, Korean oak varieties are thought to be able to be used for aging every apple fine spirit which was here investigated.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
• /
• v.98 no.4
• /
• pp.392-398
• /
• 2009

Artificial Asian dust was treated in this study to compare and determine its effect on growth, photosynthesis, respiration and stomata of 5 species trees. Sophora japonica's growth and respiration using artificial Asian dust treatment which is 10 times of average contents of Asian dust: $5,000{\mu}g{\cdot}m^{-2}$ decreases after 3 weeks while no significant difference in other species. The maximum photosynthesis of Sophora japonica and Betula pendula decreased significantly after 3 weeks and 6 weeks, respectively, using artificial Asian dust treatment which is average contents of Asian dust: $500{\mu}g{\cdot}m^{-2}$. At $5,000{\mu}g{\cdot}m^{-2}$ treatment, photosynthesis of both species decreased just after treatment of artificial Asian dust. Quercus acutissima, Quercus mongolica and Acer triflorum have no significant differences. Dust was found inside the Sophora japonica's stomatas under heavy dust treatment when viewed under the light electron microscope. By scanning electron microscopy, the higher rate of stomatal opening of Sophora japonica and Betula pendula was recognized and the size of both stomatas was bigger than other species. This result means that Asian dust has an influence in decreasing the photosynthesis, respiration and growth of some species especially if the stomatas are large.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
• /
• v.27 no.3
• /
• pp.344-356
• /
• 2013

This study is a continuation of the 22 year consecutive study (1972~1993) to monitor community dynamics of forest in Mt. Kwanak. This study was intended to provide basic data for urban forest management in the future by analyzing actual changes in vegetation structure of forest in Mt. Kwanak caused by urban environmental changes. For the past 39 years (1972~2010), average temperature increased by approximate between 1.1 and $1.7^{\circ}C$ and soil acidification (pH $5.40{\rightarrow}4.50$) and contents of $K^+$ ($0.67{\rightarrow}0.25$) and $Ca^{{+}{+}}$ ($3.20{\rightarrow}0.87$) apparently tended to decrease. According to analysis importance percentage and DBH class of community types classified based on DCA, the succession stopped at Quercus mongolica for 39 years. In addition, the succession was expected to be held at Q. mongolica or to shift from Pinus densiflora to Q. mongolica and from Q. acutissima to Q. serrata. Size of trees growing in forest of Mt. Kwanak increased but the number of species and population of trees showed a downward trend for the 39 years and Styrax japonica and Sorbus alnifolia, which are indicator species, increased their dominance continuously. Decrease in contents of $K^+$, $Ca^{{+}{+}}$, and $Mg^{{+}{+}}$ and soil acidification for the past 39 years was found to affect degradation of vegetation structure in Mt. Kwanak.

• Journal of the Korean Association of Geographic Information Studies
• /
• v.15 no.2
• /
• pp.71-85
• /
• 2012

The purpose of this study is to estimate air purification effectiveness considering the improvement of its methods related atmospheric environment. The air purification effectiveness is estimated in Daegu, one out of Korean Metropolitan cities because air pollution is getting serious in a heavily urbanized area. The absorption of pollutants is calculated by considering spatial heterogeneity that was not considered previous studies and the spatial resolution of air dispersion modeling is also improved by kriging method. According to the type and distribution of urban forest, total 26 kinds of plant communities were distributed with Pinus densiflora community, Pinus densiflora-Quercus mongolica community, Pinus densiflora-Quercus acutissima community and other kinds of communities in the study area. In the results of estimating the $CO_2$ absorption amount for identification of the air purification effectiveness on urban forest, the annual absorption amount was total 108,155t/yr. Also, the annual absorption amounts of $NO_2$ and $SO_2$ were total 183.5 ton and 410.2 ton respectively. The findings from this study can confirm the differences of pollutant absorption by concentration that could not identify if spatial distribution of pollutant concentration had not been considered.

• The Korean Journal of Ecology
• /
• v.27 no.3
• /
• pp.185-192
• /
• 2004

Vegetation established through the natural process, such as Quercus mongolica, Pinus densiflora, Q. variabilis, Q. acutissima, Carpinus laxiflora, Q. aliena and Q. serrata communities and artificially introduced vegetation, which are composed of Larix leptolepis and P. rigida plantations, are established in the mountainous land of the Mt. Songnisan National Park. On the other hand, the developed lands, which are consisted of agricultural folds, residential areas, commercial areas related to tourism, etc. appear in the lowland around streams. Based on the spatial distribution of vegetation, the southern district, which is attributed to Naesongni-myun by administrative system, showed higher natural degree and vegetation diversity. However, most of the other districts, which are attributed to Cheongcheon- and Chilseong-myuns, are covered with the Korean red pine forest, a product of artificial influence, and plantation also occupied higher percentage. Thereby both vegetation diversity and natural degree are lowering. A result of ordination by DCA showed that sands tended to be arranged by depending on the topographic condition. Species diversity of plant communities was higher in broad-leaved stands rather than in coniferous ones and in stands of the early stage than in ones of the late stage. The result of analysis on vegetation dynamics implied that vegetation of this region would be dominated by Carpinus laxiflora, Quercus mongolica and Pinus densiflora communities in the future. However, considered occurrence the of disturbance and response of vegetation on that, this estimation may different somewhat from an actual situation. Conservation strategies of the Mt. Songnisan National Park were discussed in viewpoints of landscape ecology, and conservation of major plant communities and biodiversity.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
• /
• v.7 no.1
• /
• pp.35-48
• /
• 1993

To compare ecological succession stage between 1987 and 1992, this study was executed in Mt. Puk'an. 26 sample plots of 500$m^2$ were set up. The results were summarized as follows; 1. To analysis plant community structure, the classification by TWINSPAN and CCA, DCA and RA ordination were applied to the study area. That of Mt. Puk'an was divided 4 groups by altitude. The dividing groups are Robinia pseudo-acacia-Quercus spp. community, mixed forest community, Q. serrata community, and Q. mongolica community. The successional trends of tree species over 500m seem to be from Pinus densiflora to Q. mongolica and below 500m in altitude seem to be from Robinia pseudo-acacia through Quercus acutissima, Q. mongolica, Prunus sargentii, Sorbus alnifolia to Q. serrata in the canopy layer. In the case of understory and shrub layer, the successional trends to be from Corylus sieboldiana, Zanthoxylum schinifolium through Rhus trichocarpa, Rhododendron mucronulatum, Rh. schlippenbachii to Acer pseudo-sieboldianum. 2. In comparing successional trends with 1987', the advanced data was not obtained in 1992. It was postulated that succession is not progressed by human disturbance and air pollution.

• The Korean Journal of Ecology
• /
• v.17 no.1
• /
• pp.1-9
• /
• 1994

This study focuses on forest fires attributed to cigarette light, the main source of wild fires, by examining the characteristics of the fire types. It aims to present useful data for preventive measures. Statistics show that the average length of cigarette butts left after smoking is 30mm excluding filter for domestic cigarette smokers. Also the average thickness of litter layer in forests is 58.2mm throughout the nation. The value varies according to how often leaves were trodden by hikers : the accumulation amount of Mt. Sunchi. which is relatively protected from human disturbances, is 29.6% more than that of Mt. Kye-Ryong National Park. Aged trees such as Pznus rzgidu, Quercus acutissima and Larix leptolepis have relatively large inflammable contents, 2.43kg in 15 year-old stand and 2.55kg in 10 year-old stand. This study found out the following fact with regard to the start of lighting and the out-break of fire. Fire breaks out within five minutes in the sample(C), in which Zoysza gaponica and Populus X tomentiglandulosu has been tramped when the sample has 2~6 percent of moisture contents. Coniferous trees such as Pinus rigida and Larzx leptolepis do not burn easily while leaving charcoal. In contrast, deciduous trees with Zoysia japonzca and Populus X tomentiglandulosu are quick to catch fire. As a result of the experiments, it is proved that cigarette light is a very dangerous cause of wild fire especially for dry grass like Zoysia gaponica.

• The Korean Journal of Ecology
• /
• v.22 no.5
• /
• pp.277-285
• /
• 1999

To develop a better restoration technique for altering urban planted forest to more natural forest, the changes of flora, vegetation structure and woody plant growth in the early stage after lumbering only Populus albaglandulosa of the tree layer were studied in Chungdam Park, Chungdam-dong, Kangnam-gu, Seoul for two years (from 1997 to 1998). The results were as follow. First, in the year after lumbering, the species changes occurred not in woody plants but in herbs, which increased by 44%. Three species including Viola verecunda disappeared, and 15 species including ruderals such as Metaplexis japonica and introduced species such as Erechtites hieracifolia appeared newly. Second, lumbering caused the coverages of Quercus aliena, Q. mongolica, Q. acutissima and Sorbus alnifolia in the subtree, or shrub layer, to be increased abruptly. The coverage of Lespedeza bicolor was affected by neighboring plants. Third, in the herb layer the coverage of Artemisia keiskeana was conspicuously increased but those of the others were not. Fourth, by ridding the upper layer canopy, Quercus' growth rates were increased highly. Rates of DBH growth of Q. aliena, Q. mongolica and Q. dentata were increased to 53.0%, 22.9% and 8% in the experimental area, and 23.1%, 8.3% and 6.1% in the control area, respectively, during two growing seasons (from May 11, 1997 to October 27, 1998). The ratios of twig biomasses of the previous year to the next year were 100:565 in Q. aliena, 100:197 in Q. mongolica and 100:644 in Q. dentata in the experimental area. There were also growth ratios of 100:117 in Q. aliena, 100:100 in Q. mongolica and 100:42 in Q. dentata in the control area, respectively. The growth rate increases of Q. aliena and Q. dentata were thus conspicuous in twig rather than in trunk, but that of Q. mongolica was vice versa.

• Journal of Environmental Impact Assessment
• /
• v.20 no.2
• /
• pp.187-198
• /
• 2011

The objective of this study is to analyze the flora and forest vegetation of trails with high visitor density at Molundae. Nine quadrats of $20{\times}20m$ were selected for the survey. The survey was conducted from April to October 2010. The obtained results are summarized as follows. Plot1, plot2, plot3, plot4, plot6, and plot7 were located at slopes of $5{\sim}20^{\circ}$, 17~40m above sea level, and were formed with the colony of Japanese black pine(Pinus thunbergii Parl) and Japanese black pine(Pinus thunbergii Parl)-white oak(Quercus aliena Blume). Tree layer had the height of 8~20m, and the coverage of 50~70%, while subtree layer had the height of 3-8m, and the coverage 30~80%. On the other hand, shrub layer had the height of 2~4m, and the coverage of 10~30%, and herb had the height of 0.2~1m and coverage 5~20%. Plot5, plot8, and plot9 were located at the summit areas of 57~78m above sea level, and $0^{\circ}$ slope. Japanese black pine(Pinus thunbergii Parl) formed a community there. Tree layer was 8~20m high, and covered 60~70%, of the area, and subtree layer was 6~8m high, and coverage 30~40%. Shrub layer had the height of 2~6m, and the coverage of 30%, while herb layer had the height 0.2~2m, and the coverage 20-80%. Succession does not occur in the surveyed areas which have high visitor density. Artificially planted sawtooth oak(Quercus acutissima) trees were found to disturb succession and formation of multi-layer vegetation, resulting in the ecologically unstable forest. Therefore, the researcher suggested the strategy of managing the vegetation in the conclusion. This study has the limit in that the plots selected for the survey reflected only part of various trails in the Molundae area. It is necessary to suggest the vegetation management plans by selecting more diverse trail areas in consideration of the visitor density and behaviors, and analyzing the changes in vegetation quantitatively in order to manage the vegetation in urban areas damaged by visitors more effectively.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
• /
• v.9 no.1
• /
• pp.15-29
• /
• 1995

To investigate plant community structure of Uiryung valley, Harujae valley, Kugi valley, Songchu valley, Tobongsan valley in Bukhansan National Park, each thirty eight, forty, twenty six. twenty eight, thirty six plots (plot size 100$m^2$) were set up and surveyed. The surveyed data were integrated and classification by TWINSPAN and DCA ordination techniques were applied to the study area. The plant community were divided into nine groups in seventy nine plots by TWINBPAN and the dividing groups were Carpinus laxiflora community(I), Quercus mongolica community(II), Pinus densiflora community(III), Q. mongolica-P. densiflora community(IV) Q. mongolica-Q. serrata- Prunus sargentii community(V), Q. mongolica Q. variabilis community(Ⅵ), Robinia pseudoacacia-Q. serrata community(Ⅶ). P. rigida-Q. serrata community(Ⅷ), Q. mongolica- Q. variabilis- Styrax obassia community(Ⅸ). So the successional trends of tree species at the natural forest seem to be from P. densiflora to Q. mongolica and at the artificial forest seem to be from R. pseudoacacia, P. rigida to Q. acutissima, Fraxinus rhynchophylla in canopy layer And in the subtree and shrub layer, it wag supposed that from Deotzia prunifolia, Rhus trichocarpa. Rhododendron yedoense var. poukhasleilse, Euonymus oxyphyllous to Magnolia sieboldii, Acer psuedo-sieboldianum, Lindera obtusiloba. In comparing successional trends with past study, it was postulated that successtion is not progressed by human disturbance and soil acidification by the air pollution.