• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.23 no.6
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• pp.443-450
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• 1990

Pregnant rats were fed liquid diet to determine the influence of maternal ethanol intake on maternal and pup liver copper when dietary copper was low. The diets, which contained either 0.75(low) or 3.75(control)mg copper/1 with or without 30% of kcal from ethanol, were fed throughout gestation and the first 15 days of lactation. maternal calorie intake and body weight were unaffected by dietary treatment. Ethanol intake depressed maternal liver copper concentration only when diet copper was low(interactive effect P<0.05). Although ethanol intake depressed total pup liver copper concentration regardless of dietary copper level, the interactive effect observed in maternal liver was reflected incopper content of the pup liver metallothionein fraction eluted from a Sephadex G-75 column. The zinc content of metallothionein was inversely related to copper content of metallothionein. Results suggest that pregnancy and lactation is a special period to develop a copper deficiency when low copper intake and ethanol ingestion are combined not only in mothers but also in their offspring.

• Journal of Korean Home Economics Education Association
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• v.24 no.2
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• pp.51-62
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• 2012

This research examined the method and amount changes of recommended protein intakes(RPI) for male and female adult, and pregnant lactating women from 1962's Recommended Dietary Allowances for Korean(KRDA) to 2010's Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans(KDRIs) revised. As male and female adult's RPI calculation, factorial method was applied until 1989 KRDA, after that nitrogen balance study was applied. Basal factor in factorial method was standard protein(egg or milk protein) requirement or obligatory nitrogen(protein) loss. On the other hand, basal factor in nitrogen balance study was minimum dietary protein requirement to maintain nitrogen equilibrium balance(nitrogen intake = nitrogen excretion). Adjusting factors of RPI were stress and/or protein requirement difference among people. The RPI of male adults were 50~80 g/day, that of female adults were 45~70 g/day. The additional RPI of pregnant women were 10~30 g/day, were calculate based upon the extra protein needs caused by unborn child development. The pregnant women's additional RPI of 2010's KDRIs revised in the periods of first, second, and third trimester were 0, 15, 30 g/day, respectively. The additional RPI of lactation women were 20~30 g/day, were calculated based upon the extra protein needs caused by maternal milk secretion.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.13 no.6
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• pp.535-542
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• 2019

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Proper nutrition intake during pregnancy and lactation is very important to both mothers and babies. Pregnant women should maintain proper nutritional status to restore decreased physical strength due to pregnancy and childbirth and produce breastmilk for the growth and development of the baby. Recently, the number of Chinese people living in Korea has increased as the exchange between Korea and China becomes active. It is important to provide proper nutrition education for pregnant women of both countries considering cultural differences. SUBJECTS/METHODS: The subjects of this study were postpartum women in Gyeonggi, South Korea and Jinhua, China. The subjects were 20-45 years old less than six months after childbirth. A survey, using self-administered questionnaires, was conducted from October 2018 to January 2019. For data analysis, 221 Korean postpartum women (KPW) and 221 Chinese postpartum women (CPW) questionnaires were used. RESULTS: KPW had significantly higher nutritional knowledge score and dietary attitude score than CPW (P < 0.001). However, overall score for dietary habits was significantly higher in CPW compared to KPW (P < 0.001). In KPW, nutritional knowledge (P < 0.01) and dietary attitude (P < 0.001) had significantly positive correlations with dietary habits. The proportions of KPW and CPW who answered that they had experience of nutrition education were 28.5% and 80.1% (P < 0.001). The score for dietary habits was lower as the hours for watching TV and using mobile phone became longer in postpartum women of both countries, with significant differences in KPW (P < 0.001) and CPW (P < 0.05). In KPW, the score for dietary habits in postpartum women with exercise experience was significantly higher than that in postpartum women without exercise experience (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: More pregnancy-related nutrition education should be provided and various and effective nutrition education programs, which not only transfer information but can be practiced in the actual life, should be developed.

• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.47 no.5
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• pp.446-453
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• 2021

Background: Plastic particles less than 5 mm in diameter (microplastics) are well-known for causing various toxicities such as lung inflammation, oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity. As microplastics become smaller, they can move across cell membranes, the placenta, and the blood-brain barrier. Objectives: We evaluated the toxicities of polyethylene microplastics (PE-PMs) in dams and neonates through intragastric intubation of pregnant ICR mice. Methods: Low concentrations (0.01 mg/mouse/day) and high concentrations (0.1 mg/mouse/day) of polyethylene microplastics were administered from the ninth day of pregnancy to postnatal day seven. The control group was administered with distilled water. On the day of sacrifice, the weight of dams and neonates and the organ weight of neonates was measured. Further, acetylcholinesterase levels and glutathione peroxidase levels were evaluated by using a blood sample obtained on the sacrifice day. Results: No significant difference in the number of neonates was found, but the body weight gain of dams was seen to be lower in the low-dose group. On the other hand, we observed a consecutively declining trend in the weight gain and organ weight of neonates among the high-, control, and low-dose groups. Meanwhile, the serum acetylcholinesterase and glutathione peroxidase level were higher in the low-dose group compared to the control group. Further, the dose-dependent accumulation of microplastics in the organs of neonates revealed the transport of plastic particles from dams to their offspring. Conclusions: Although the exact mechanism of toxicity caused by microplastics could not be confirmed, it was validated that exposure to microplastics during pregnancy and lactation causes its migration between generations and accumulation throughout the body. Hence, it is necessary to evaluate the systemic toxicity of microplastics and assessment of co-morbidities such as second-generation toxicity, neurotoxicity, and depression following long-term exposure.

• Proceedings of the Korean Environmental Health Society Conference
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• 2005.06a
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• pp.73-83
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• 2005

Higher methylmercury (MeHg) accumulation and susceptibility to toxicity in the fetus than in the mother at parturition is well known. However, the difference in MeHg exposure to fetus and offspring throughout gestation and suckling is not well established. In the human, the effects of MeHg exposure on pregnant and breast-feeding women remain an important issue for elucidation, especially those of continuous uptake in high-fish-consumption populations. The purpose of this paper was to evaluate the difference in MeHg exposure to fetus and offspring throughout gestation and lactation using our recent animal and human studies data. In the animal study, adult female rats were given a diet containing 5 ${\mu}$g/g Hg (as MeHg) for 8 weeks. Then they were mated and subsequently given the same diet throughout gestation and suckling. On embryonic days 18, 20, 22 and at parturition, the concentrations of Hg in the brains of fetus were approximately 1.5-2.0 times higher than those in the mothers. However, during the suckling period Hg concentrations in the brain rapidly declined to about 1/10 of that during late pregnancy. Hg concentrations in blood also decreased rapidly after birth. In human study, Hg concentrations in red blood cells (RBCs-Hg) in 16 pairs of maternal and umbilical cord blood samples were compared at birth and 3 months of age after parturition. RBCs-Hg concentration in the umbilical cords was about 1.6 times higher than those in the mothers at parturition. However, all the infants showed declines in Hg concentrations throughout the breast-feeding period. The Hg concentration in RBCs-Hg at 3 months of age was about half that at birth. Both the animal and human studies indicated that MeHg exposure to the fetus might be especially high but it dramatically decreases during the suckling period. Therefore, close attention should be paid to the gestation rather than the breast-feeding period to avoid the risk of MeHg to human infants.

• Biomolecules & Therapeutics
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• v.4 no.4
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• pp.301-309
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• 1996

LBD-001, a recombinant human interferon ${\gamma}$ produced by genetically engineered yeast as a host system, was intravenously administered to pregnant female rats (Sprague-Dawley) from day 7 to 17 of gestation at dose levels of 0.35$\times$10$^{6}$ , 0.69$\times$10$^{6}$ , and 1.38$\times$10$^{6}$ I.U./kg/day. As the control groups, hydrocortisone sodium succinate (5 or 10 mg/kg/day) was also similarly administered. Teratological effects of the test agents on fetuses and development of offsprings (F1 rats) were investigated. (1) No significant changes by the treatment of LBD-001 were observed in body weight, food and water consumption, feeding and nursing behaviors, and autopsy of pregnant or lactating mother rats. However, in hydrocortisone sodium succinate (10 mg/kg/day)-treated group, significant decreases of body weight on day 16, 18, and 20 of gestation and food consumption on day 20 of gestation and outstanding atrophy of thymus and adrenals were observed in two rats autopsied on day 20 of gestation. (2) No significant changes in resorption rate, skeletal or visceral development of fetuses, and physical or sensory development of offsprings (Fl) by the treatment of LBD-001 were detected. In hydrocortisone sodium succinate (10 mg/kg/day)-treated group, however, there were significant decreases of body weight of fetuses, delay of ossification, temporary delay of body weights of offsprings (F1) on day 1 and 3 of lactation, and increased tendency of stillborn rate and malformation rate of bone. The results show that LBD-001 at the dose of 1.38$\times$10$^{6}$ I.U./kg/day or less is not teratogenic in organogenesis of fetuses and the development of offsprings (F1). Meanwhile, hydrocortisone sodium succinate (10 mg/kg/day) seems to delay ossification of fetuses and temporarily retard the development of offsprings (Fl).

• Nutritional Sciences
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• v.4 no.1
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• pp.3-12
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• 2001

Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) are important components of brain phospholipds and play important role (s) in brain function. In rats, the maximum brain growth occurs during the period of lactation even though it happens during the third trimester of gestation in human. Since milk contained docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) even through the maternal diet had no DHA and/or a very small amount of its precursor, $\alpha$-linolenic acid ($\alpha$-LnA), an emphasis was given to maternal adipose tissue as a reservoir of this fatty acid. We, therefore, investigated the mesenteric and subcutaneous adipose tissues for their fatty acid composition in dams reared with different fat diets. Diets containing various amounts of $\omega$6 and $\omega$3 fatty acids were given to adult female rats (200-250g) throughout the pregnancy and lactation periods. Diets were composed of 10% (wt/wt) corn oil (CO), soybean oil (SO), perilla seed oil (PO) containing about 60% $\alpha$-LnA, or fish oil (FO) rich in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA. The fatty acid ompositions of mesenteric and subcutaneous fat were measured and evaluated at Day-2 and Day-15 after parturition. In general, major characteristics of dietary fatty acid composition was reflected on the fatty acid composition of adipose tissues. Dietary fatty acid composition was reflected more on mesenteric fat as compared to subcutaneous fat. Mesenteric fat was found to contain less arachidonic acid (AA) and mesenteric fats of CO, SO and PO groups contained less DHA than did the subcutaneous fat. The P/M/S ratios of adipose tissues were similar between experimental groups while dietary P/M/S ratios differed significantly. It was noticeable that a small proportion of DHA was found in the adipose tissues of animals of CO, SO and PO groups (Day-2) and in SO and PO groups (Day-15), the groups which do not contain DHA in their diets. The percentage of DHA in mesenteric fat o CO, SO and PO groups decreased as lactation continues, while the proportion of DHA in FO group increased. Adipose tissues of FO group had higher DHA/EPA ratio as compared to the diet. Considering the fact that the body contains a large amount of adipose tissues, our present finding suggests that the adipose tissue can serve as a reservoir of DHA for pregnant and lactating rats.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.21 no.1
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• pp.1-11
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• 1988

The effect of maternal low protein diets during gestation and lactation on growth and development of young rats was investigated. Pregnant and/or lactating rats were fed the diet containing 20% or 11.7%casein. DNA, RNA and total protein were determined in liver, muscle and brain of 21-day-old young rats and lipid contents and acetylcholinesterase activity in brain. Body and organ weight of young rats were measured. DNA, RNA and protein contents of liver, muscle and brain of young rats were less in maternal low protein group than that of control group. Total lipid and cholesterol contents in brain were less(p<0.01) in low protein group than that of control group than that of control group. And also brain acety;cholnesterase activity of low protein group was significantly (p<0.01) lower than those of control group, but their each organ weight ratios in relation to body weight was higher than that of control group. It could be suggested that the maternal low protein during gestation and lactation has influenced on cell number, cell size, protein content, brain lipid content and acetyl-cholinesterase activity of the offsprings.

• Molecules and Cells
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• v.20 no.1
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• pp.97-104
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• 2005

To investigate apoptosis in HC11 mammary epithelial cells, we compared the gene expression profiles of actively growing and serum-starved apoptotic cells using a mouse apoptosis gene array and $^{33}P$-labeled cDNA prepared from the RNA of the two cultures. Analysis of the arrays showed that expression of several genes such as clusterin, secreted frizzled related protein mRNA (sFRP-1), CREB-binding protein (CBP), and others was higher in the apoptotic cells whereas expression of certain genes including survivin, cell division cycle 2 homolog A (CDC2), and cyclin A was lower. These expression patterns were confirmed by RT-PCR and/or Northern analyses. We compared the expression of some of these genes in the mouse mammary gland under various physiological conditions. The expression levels of genes (clusterin, CBP, and M6P-R) up-regulated in apoptotic conditions were higher at involution than during lactation. On the other hand, genes (Pin, CDC2) downregulated in apoptotic conditions were relatively highly expressed in virgin and pregnant mice. We conclude that certain genes such as clusterin, sFRP-1, GAS1 and CBP are induced in apoptotic mammary epithelial cells, and others are repressed. Moreover, the apoptosis array is an efficient technique for comparing gene expression profiles in different states of the same cell type.

• Clinical and Experimental Reproductive Medicine
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• v.39 no.4
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• pp.144-152
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• 2012

Objective: Concerns are growing about the decrease in male reproductive health. Caffeine is one of the popular nutrients that has been implicated as a risk factor for infertility. In the present study, we examined whether in utero and lactational exposure to caffeine affects the reproductive function of the offspring of rats. Methods: Pregnant rats received caffeine via drinking water during gestation (26 and 45 mg/kg) and lactation (25 and 35 mg/kg). Body and reproductive organ weight, seminiferous tubule diameter, germinal epithelium height, sperm parameters, fertility rate, number of implantations, and testosterone level of the offspring were assessed from birth to adulthood. Results: Significant dose-related decreases were observed in the body and reproductive organ weight, seminiferous tubule diameter, and germinal epithelium height of the offspring. Sperm density had declined significantly in offspring of the low-dose and high-dose groups, by 8.81% and 19.97%, respectively, by postnatal day 150. The number of viable fetuses had decreased significantly in females mated with male offspring of the high-dose group at postnatal days 60, 90, 120, and 150. There were also significant reductions in testosterone levels of high-dose group offspring from birth to postnatal day 150. Conclusion: It is concluded that maternal caffeine consumption impairs gonadal development and has long-term adverse effects on the reproductive efficiency of male offspring rats.