• Economic and Environmental Geology
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• v.56 no.4
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• pp.475-499
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• 2023

To infer the provenance of raw iron materials utilized in iron production at the archaeological sites in Gyeongsang province, petrographic and geochemical analyses were conducted for smelting samples and major iron ores sourced from ore deposits. The smelting samples excavated from various iron archaeological sites were classified into different types according to their refining processes, such as iron bloom, iron bloom slag, pig iron, pig iron slag, forging iron flake, smithery iron, iron flake, and arrowhead. These samples exhibited discernable differences in their mineralogical components and texture. The enrichments of major elements such as aluminum and calcium in silicate minerals of the residual slags and the high contents of trace elements such as nickel and copper in some iron-making relics reflect the characteristics of raw iron ores, and thus can be regarded as potential indicators for inferring the provenance of source materials. In particular, the compositional ranges of Pb-Sr isotope ratios for the iron smelting samples were classified into three categories: 1) those exhibiting similar ratios to those of the raw iron ores, 2) those enriched in strontium isotope ratio, and 3) those enriched in both lead and strontium isotope ratios. The observed distinct Pb-Sr isotope characteristics in the iron smelting samples suggest the potential contribution of specific additives being introduced during the high-temperature refining process. These results provide a new perspective on the interpretation of the provenance study of the iron archaeological samples in Gyeongsang province, particularly in terms of the potential contribution of additives on the refining process.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.32 no.2
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• pp.101-108
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• 2016

Lead isotope ratio of bronze artifacts excavated from Dongchon Site in Sunchang have determined by TIMS. As results of comparison lead isotope ratio of bronze objects with the provenance data of galenas of Korea, China, and Japan, the provenance of three material of bronze objects were turned out to originate from the southern and northern part of China. On the other hands, data were plotted either in zone 3 of the South Korean galena map. The results of these scientific analysis of bronze objects can be used as basic data in comparison researches on manufacturing technology, provenance of bronze objects to be found in the future.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.35 no.1
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• pp.41-49
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• 2019

This study analyzes the material characteristics of stone tools of the Paleolithic period excavated from the Osong site, located at the project site for the creation of the Osong 2nd Life Science Complex, and estimates the provenance of the stone materials. Because the stones had been buried for a long time, their surfaces had become heavily weathered yellow or yellowish-brown, and the magnetic susceptibility values varied from 0 to 15(${\times}10^{-3}SI$). The excavated stone tools were rocks with various magnetic susceptibility values that could not be specified. Five stone tools subjected to destructive analysis were divided into two groups, one with a value of 1-3(${\times}10^{-3}SI$) and the other with a value of 5-9(${\times}10^{-3}SI$), both based on visible characteristics. The results of the thin-section analysis showed that most of the stone tools were basaltic rocks comprising plagioclase, quartz, and pyroxene, and some had iron content as high as 20 wt.%. These findings and the present geological map suggest that the stone tools were not made from the surrounding rocks because there are no areas containing basaltic rocks surrounding Bongsan-ri in Osong-eup. Andesite and tuff are distributed along with basaltic rocks in the Doan-myeon area in Jeongpyeong-gun, Chungcheongbuk-do Province, but the distance from the excavation site is too far. To determine whether this region is actually related to the provenance of the raw rock, it is necessary to conduct additional field surveys and comprehensive and precise analyses.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.32 no.2
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• pp.189-202
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• 2016

To figure out the material characteristics about slag and raw materials which are founded in iron product sites in Seosan area, we used XRF, EDS to analysis chemical compositions. Also we observe the microstructure by microscope and SEM. To identify the mineral component, XRD analysis was used and to assume the provenance of the raw material, lead isotope ratio analysis was used. From the results, we figure out that slags are non-ferrous created when metal was refined. Also, main tissue of slags were Fayalite, Galena, Magnetite, and raw materials were identified as mineral of Galena, Anglesite, Pyrite etc. From the result about lead isotope ratio analysis, we found out most samples are classified as the Western Gyeonggi massif in South Korea. Especially three of raw materials and slag samples which collected in the Seosan Doseongri was presumed to be the provenance. We figure out that slags we analyzed were made in non-ferrous metal smelting process and especially that were more likely to smelt from Seosan Doseongri. If various slags in this area are analysed by someone, It will contribute understanding non-ferrous metal refining process as well as metal refining which are composed.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.36 no.5
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• pp.315-325
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• 2020

The Daetongsa temple is the earliest temple to be constructed during the era of the Three Kingdoms in ancient Korea. The main architect, purpose, and name of the temple have been confirmed through ancient literature and archeological materials carved in the Chinese letter, Daetong, excavated around Gongju. However, the location and range of the temple have remained elusive and were discussed in various studies. In this study, we examine the roof tiles obtained from the presumed site of the Daetongsa temple. The tiles were found to contain traces of red paint (red pigments) on their surface and analyzed using nondestructive techniques. The results imply that roof tiles were made using clay tablets and wooden cylinders, with latticed cloth in between. Additionally, some wooden cylinders appeared to comprise numerous wooden plates tied together by strings. The clay tablets used to make the roof tiles were produced from the source clay via the sorting process. The traces of red paint on the surface of the roof tiles were verified to be traditional pigments used for painting wooden buildings. These pigments were extracted from red ocher or red clay (Seokganju), mainly consisting of iron oxide. In the literature, the location of provenance sites for Seokganju is estimated to be far from Gongju. However, the materials for extracting the red pigments were relatively easy to source because most rocks comprised iron oxides. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss the provenance of the red pigments around the presumed site of Daetongsa.

• Economic and Environmental Geology
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• v.43 no.6
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• pp.543-553
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• 2010

This study was focused on the mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of field soil of the Baekje Kingdom from K wongbawigol site in Jeongdongri, Buyeo and whether the bricks from Songsanri Tombs and Muryung's Royal Tomb were made of soil from this site. Soil samples show the similar size fraction as a silt loam and acidic soil, whereas some samples have the enrichment of organic matter, P and S. Also, they have similar geochemical behavior of elements and similar mineral phases consisting of quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, vermiculite, mica and kaolinite. The enrichment of iron oxide is found in some soil layer, including the iron oxide mottling and precipitation along plant roots and they are attributed to repeat oxidation and reduction environments due to flooding and drainage of field soil. It's anthropogenic alteration by human activity. Especially, it is assumed that the concentration of the iron oxides found in bricks from Muryung's Royal Tomb and Songsanri Tombs is the additional evidence that soil in this study is probably the raw materials of those bricks.

• The Journal of the Petrological Society of Korea
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• v.6 no.2
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• pp.111-122
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• 1997

Provenance type and paleoclimate of the Jinju and Iljig formation were studied on the basis of compositions of sandstones from the western Euiseong area in the northern part of Kyong-sang basin. The average compositions of quartz, feldspar and lithic grain(Q:F:L) from the sandstones are 53:40:7 and 50:46:4 for Jinju and Iljig formations, respectively. The values fall into the arkosic arenite field. Petrographic detrital modes of the sandstones mainly suggest transitional continental block for the tectonic setting of the provenance. All sandstones from the Jinju and IIjig formations show chemical compositions close to average values of arkose(Pettijohn, 1975). $Na_2O$ contents is relatively high. $Fe_2O_3$(total iron) and MgO contents decrease with increasing $SiO_2$ contents since the framework grains of arkoses supposed to be derived from granitic rocks are poor in ferromagnesian minerals. The detrital framework grains still possess climatic signs even though the grains were more or less altered during deep burial. Bivariant plot of Suttner and Dutta(1986) suggests semi-arid to semi-humid paleoclimate during the deposition of the Jinju and Iljig sandstones.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.16 no.1
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• pp.9-28
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• 2007

We investigated the changes in the species of the woods used for Korean ancient and historic architectures, which include prehistoric excavated relics and existing wooden buildings in South Korea. The species data were collected from various sources such as excavation and repair reports, journal papers, and a few unpublished documents. We divided the building Periods as Paleolithic, Neolitic, Bronze Ages, Iron Age/Three Kingdoms, Koryo, Joseon (early, middle, late) and modem periods. In prehistoric periods, hardwoods were major species. Oak (Quercus spp.) woods dominated (94 percent in average); the others (5%) were Juglans mandshurica, Platycarya strobilacea, Castanea crenata, and few softwoods(1%). During Iron Age and Three Kingdom periods, oaks remained as a major species (57%) and others Platycarya strobilacea(21%), Castanea crenata(13%), and Pinus spp. (6%). The oak woods decreased in Koryo period and they occupied only 1.1%. Instead of oaks, pine (Pinus spp., 71%) and Zelkova serrata (22%) dominated in Koryo. In early and middle Joseon periods, pine woods (73%) remain as a major species and the others were oaks (14%) and Zelkova serrata (9%). As late Joseon came, the pine woods occupied more than 88%. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a few boreal species such as larch (Larix spp.) and spruce (Picea spp.), which grow in cold area, were found. We believe they were transported from northern Korea. The existing buildings in Korea are mainly from Joseon period and a few from late Koryo periods. During these periods, pine woods were used for most buildings. For such reason, pine woods were known as 'representative materials for historic buildings'. but earlier times, broad-leaved trees, i.e., oak and Zelkova woods were major materials. The changes in building materials resulted from both climate and human impacts. The dry climate and disturbed forests induce more pines in the mountains. We also compared the wood qualities of the species and found that Zelkova woods were superior ones and deserved more planting for future demands in the repair for historic buildings.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.51 no.4
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• pp.224-233
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• 2018

Thirty-three Early Iron Age bronzes at the sites of Hoam-dong in Chungju and Cheongsong-ri in Buyeo were investigated in order to study the manufacturing technique and the provenance of lead. Chemical analysis using X-ray fluorescence showed that 33 bronzes consist of copper(Cu), tin(Sn) and lead(Pb) served as major elements. Major and minor elemental analyses by EPMA were performed on two mirrors and 2 weapons of the bronzes investigated. The results shows that bronze mirrors from Chungju and Buyeo were high-tin bronzes(> 30 wt%). And 20% of tin and 5% of lead were founded in bronze weapons. Iron, zinc, arsenic, silver, nickel, sulfur and cobalt detected in four bronzes as minor and trace elements. The four bronzes were alloyed considering their function and were not heat treated after casting due to their high tin content. Lead isotope analysis using TIMS indicates that thirty-three bronzes were distributed southern Korea peninsula except Zone 1. As a result, lead raw materials came from various regions in Korean Peninsula not from Gyeongsang-do regions. The manufacturing techniques of bronze ware generalized at this age, and bronze was produced in various sites using raw materials from various sources.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.25 no.1
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• pp.101-114
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• 2009

Potsherds and kilns of the AD 3th century excavated from Gundong and Majeon sites, Korea were studied to investigate the production techniques and provenance of potsherds and kilns on the pastes. For potsherds, kilns blocks and in-situ paleo-soils, provenance of raw materials were estimated through mineralogy and geochemistry, while production technique and thermal feature of kilns were investigated through observation of textures and compositions as well as firing experiment on paleo-soils. As a result of study, potsherds and kilns were found to have similar mineralogical compositions as the neighboring paleo-soils and to have same evolution path with that of geochemistry. The potsherds were divided into 3 groups according to firing temperature and production technique. Group 1 consists of reddish stamped pattern pottery with loose textures, which has many pores and contains many iron oxides. Its temper is less than about 0.5mm, and was probably fired between 700 to $800^{\circ}C$. Group 2 contains ash to grayish blue stamped pattern pottery, which has vitrified texture and few pores. Its temper is less than about 0.5mm, and was probably fired from 900 to $1,000^{\circ}C$. However, some potsherd belongs to the group 2 in terms of features for temper and pastes, but it was probably fired over $1,100^{\circ}C$. Group 3 contains reddish and grayish stamped pattern pottery. It has vitrified matrix, few pores and temper consists of polycrystalline quartz and feldspar over 2mm, and it was probably fired around $1,000^{\circ}C$. The kiln had experienced temperature from 600 to $700^{\circ}C$ on the wall, from 900 to $1,000^{\circ}C$ on the bottom, suggesting the function of high temperature firing.