• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.32 no.4
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• pp.407-418
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• 1999

The purpose of this study was to identify dietary factors related to the incidence of diabetes mellitus in Korea. The study consisted of 165 diabetic patients, male and female, aged 30 to 70 years and 198 healthy persons as controls. Diabetic patients who had been diagnosed with diabetes mellitus for less than five years before the study period were recruited from eight different hospitals located in Seoul, Korea. Socioeconomic status, state of illness, physical activity, food habits and food intake were assessed. Food intake was assessed by food frequency questionnaire method using a 105-food frequency questionnaire developed for diabetic patients. The stress and activity indices of diabetic patients were not significantly different from control, but alcohol consumption and smoking levels were higher in diabetics than controls. Other diseases of male diabetic patients included liver diseases, digestive system diseases, and hypertension, while those of female diabetics were hypertension, neuralgia, arthritis and digestive system diseases. These disease patterns are different from Western countries whose most common complications are hypertension and hyperlipidemia. More irregular and less varied meals were found in the diabetic group compared to the control group, suggesting that diabetic patients have generally undesirable food habits. Otherwise, food and nutrient intake of diabetics did not differ greatly from the control group. It was found that diabetic patients consumed more cereals and less fruit than the control group, and also that male diabetics consumed more alcohol. The carbohydrate : protein : fat energy distribution ratio was 61.7 : 15.8 : 22.5 in male patients and 65.1 : 14.9 : 19.7 in female patients. Discriminant analysis showed that diabetes risk factors differed with sex. In male patients, the important factors were body mass index(BMI), vitamin C intake, family diabetic history and vegetable intake, while in female patients they were BMI, cereals intake, carbohydrate intake, vitamin C intake, stress, food habits and Ca intake. These results show that excessive intake of energy and fat are not the major causal factors in Korean NIDDM. Therefore, the diabetes risk factors of Western countries may not directly apply to Koreans. Mors study is needed to clarify the risk factors of Korean NIDDM.

• Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology
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• v.30 no.4
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• pp.767-774
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• 1998

This study has been carried out to measure the amount of the daily intake by Korean on preservatives (Dehydroacetic acid, Benzoic acid and ρ-Hydroxybenzoic acid asters) in foods. The amounts of preservatives were determined by HPLC in foods such as butter, cheese, margarine, aloe gel, carbonated beverages, mixed beverage, ginseng beverage, red ginseng drink, soy sauce, fruit and vegetable juices (except unheated fruit-vegetable juice), vineger, seasonings, fruit and vegetables only on the peel, fruit wine, rice wine and unrefined rice wine. The recovery ranges were found to be 99.2% for dehydroacetic Acid, 95.8% for benzoic acid and $94.2{\sim}97.2%$ for ${\rho}-hydroxybenzoic$ acid in foods, respectively. The data of average food intake for each food items per capita per day were obtained from the report of national nutrition survey carried by the Ministry of Health and Welfare in 1997. The detected number of samples and average intake range of preservatives have been figured cut to $ND{\sim}290.0{\;}ppm$ for dehydroacetic acid, $ND{\sim}400.0{\;}ppm$ for benzoic acid and $ND{\sim}93.9{\;}ppm$ for ${\rho}-hydroxybenzoic$ acid esters, respectively. Estimated daily intake (EDI) of each additives per capita per day were shown as follows; 1.56 mg for dehydroacetic acid, 2.25 mg for benzoic acid and 0.44 mg for ${\rho}-hydroxybenzoic$ acid esters in total respectively and these values were evaluated to be much lower than that of FAO/WHO's acceptable daily intake (ADI) $0{\sim}5{\;}mg/kg$ b.w./day for benzoic acid and $0{\sim}10{\;}mg/kg$ b.w./day for ${\rho}-hydroxybenzoic$ acid esters.

• Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention
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• v.17 no.6
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• pp.2923-2933
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• 2016

Recently, we reported an inverse association between high 'mate' intake (infusion of Ilex paraguariensis herb, a staple beverage in temperate South America) and breast cancer (BC) risk. Stronger inverse associations were found in high strata of tea, vegetable, fruit and energy intakes, and in overweight/obese women, suggesting possible roles for 'mate' mainly from its antioxidant contribution. The present study attempted to thoroughly explore possible associations among 'mate' and tea intake, dietary antioxidants and BC risk. Combining two databases of previous studies, 572 BC incident cases and 889 controls were interviewed with a specific questionnaire featuring socio-demographic, reproductive and lifestyle variables, and a food frequency questionnaire (64 items), focusing on 'mate' intake (consumer status, daily intake, age at start, age at quit, duration of habit). Food-derived nutrients were calculated from available databases. Odds ratios (OR) and their 95% confidence intervals were calculated through unconditional logistic regression, adjusting for relevant potential confounders. The highest 'mate' intake was significantly inversely associated with BC risk for both low and high carotenoids (OR=0.40 vs. 0.41), vitamin C (OR=0.33 vs. 0.50), vitamin E (OR=0.37 vs. 0.45), flavonols (OR=0.38 vs. 0.48) and reduced glutathione (OR=0.48 vs. 0.46) strata. High tea intake showed significant inverse risk associations only with high carotenoids (OR=0.41), vitamin E (OR=0.48) and reduced glutathione (OR=0.43) strata. In conclusion, a strong and inverse association for 'mate' intake and BC was found, independent of dietary antioxidant levels. Also strong inverse associations with tea intake were more evident only at high levels of certain dietary antioxidants.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.9 no.4
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• pp.411-419
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• 2015

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: This study analyzed factors affecting consumption frequencies of vegetables and fruits in Korean adolescents. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Consumption frequencies of vegetables and fruits, general characteristics, meal, health, and other variables were analyzed for a total of 147,047 adolescents who participated in the KYRBWS (Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey) conducted in 2006 and 2011 by the Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. RESULTS: Consumption frequencies of vegetables and fruits more than once a day significantly decreased in 2011 compared to 2006 based on Chi-square test conducted for every factor employed in the study. Analysis of factors showed that consumption frequencies of vegetables and fruits were reduced in both study years as subjective income decreased, whereas intake frequencies increased with mother's education level and reduction of adolescent stress level. CONCLUSIONS: In general, consumption frequencies of vegetables and fruits decreased in 2011 compared to those in 2006. Thus, future research needs to improve dietary guidelines for nutrition education in order for students to recognize the importance of food consumption and necessity of increasing daily serving sizes of vegetables and fruits for their balanced consumption.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.40 no.sup
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• pp.9-21
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• 2007

This study aimed to assess the total sugar intake for Korean and to identify major food sources contributing to those food components. Korean adults aged over 20 years old from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2001 and 2002 were selected. The data were analyzed to obtain nationally and seasonally representative information on the health and nutritional status of the Korean. Forty food groups were used in identifying food sources of total sugar and energy intake. Total sugar contents of foods in the KNHANES data sets were estimated by food code matching technique with Release 18 of the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference. Sample weighted means, standard errors, and population percentages were calculated using SAS and SUDAAN. The mean total sugar intake of the Korean was 60.3g in 2001, 40.9g in spring 2002, 45.7g in summer 2002, and 52.1g in fall 2002, which were 30-44% of intake of US people. Fresh fruit was identified as the most significant food source for total sugar intake in Korean population in all age groups and all seasons. The next major food sources following fresh fruits were candy/jelly/syrup/honey, coffee/coffee caream, vegetables, Kimchi, soft drinks, milk, fruit juice, cookie/cracker/cake, and vegetable juice/grain juice, which showed similar results through the seasons. While carbonated soft drink was the most significant food sources for total sugar or added sugar intakes for US people. The total sugar intakes were significantly higher in women, higher educational level, and residing in metropolitan area. As intake of total sugar increased, intakes of protein, fiber, calcium, phosphorus, iron, Vit A, B1, B2, C, niacin showed significantly increased, while high intakes of added sugars showed low intakes of some micronutrients in the US people. Percentages of people who consumed nutrients below EAR were less in higher total sugar intake group than in lower intake group. From these results, we can conclude that the food consumption habits including the total sugar intake of Korean people seems relatively good so far. More reliable database of total sugar and added sugar composition tables in public domain should be established in the future, and also more researches about total sugar and added sugar for Koreans should be continued.

• Journal of the Korean Dietetic Association
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• v.28 no.4
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• pp.281-292
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• 2022

The lower elementary school grades are an important period in which eating habits are formed. We examined the relationship between eating habits and school meal intake in the lower grades of an elementary school in Seoul. The eating habits were investigated using the Nutrition Quotient (NQ) for children. The school meal intake rates and preferred menus were obtained by automatically scanning the plate before and after meals using an artificial intelligence food scanner. The average school meal intake rate for the 347 subjects was 68.5±12.2%, and the nutrient intakes through the school meals were 353.5±70.0 kcal of energy, 51.8±10.2 g of carbohydrates, 14.6±3.1 g of proteins, 10.3±2.3 g of fats, 87.0±20.0 mg of calcium, and 1.8±0.4 mg of iron. The preferred menus were rice, grilled food, and dairy products, and non-preferred menus were salad, beverages, and stewed food. The eating habits that showed a positive correlation with the school meal intake rate were 'Diverse side dishes (r=0.332, P<0.001)', 'Vegetable side dishes (r=0.166, P<0.01)', 'Kimchi side dish (r=0.230, P<0.001)' and 'Less TV watching and computer game time (r=0.105, P<0.05)'. The NQ score also showed a positive correlation with the rate of school meal intake (r=0.216, P<0.001). The balance score was positively correlated with fruit (r=0.192, P<0.001), and the diversity score had the highest positive correlation with Kimchi (r=0.362, P<0.001). The regularity score was positively correlated with fried food (r=0.114, P<0.05). In conclusion, it was found that elementary school students in the lower grades had a higher school meal intake rate when their eating habits included eating side dishes evenly, and consuming vegetable side dishes and Kimchi.

• Korean Journal of Human Ecology
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• v.16 no.4
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• pp.837-848
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• 2007

The literature suggested that a small reduction in overall blood pressure can have a large effect on overall prevalence of hypertension, and therefore, the affect of taste preferences of the population on salt intake should be considered for long-term blood pressure intervention programs. The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of salt taste preference and salt taste sensitivity on salt intake behavior as risk factors for high blood pressure. We collected information on blood pressure, diet and lifestyle behaviors, salt taste preference and salt taste sensitivity from 540 respondents from Suseo-dong, Seoul. Salt taste sensitivity was assessed by administering a 1% NaCl solution to the subject's tongue and measuring the perceived intensity on 10 level scale. Salt intake behavior was classified into 3 categories: frequency of high-sodium foods, practice of salt-reducing behavior and frequency of vegetable and fruit intake. Salt taste preference showed a significant relation to the subjects' blood pressure, i.e. subjects with a higher salt preference had higher blood pressure. Salt taste sensitivity did not show a significant relation to blood pressure. However, there was a positive correlation between salt taste preference and salt taste sensitivity. Among the 3 indicators used to measure salt intake behavior, the practice of salt-reducing behavior remained significantly correlated to blood pressure. Moreover, salt-reducing behavior and salt taste preference showed a significant correlation, i.e. people who do not like salty foods tend to practice more salt-reducing behavior, leading to reduced levels in blood pressure. In a population, a small reduction in overall blood pressure can have large effects in overall prevalence of hypertension, in contrast to clinical studies where achievement of an individual's normal blood pressure is emphasized. Therefore, taste preference of the population should be considered for long-term blood pressure intervention programs.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.19 no.5
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• pp.468-478
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• 2014

Objectives: Intake of fruits and vegetables has protective effects against stroke attack. This study intended to examine the status of consuming fruits and vegetables and to find out which factors may influence the frequency of consumption of fruits and vegetables in individuals with a history of stroke. Methods: The data of 208 subjects from 5th (2010, 2011) Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHNES) who reported a stroke diagnosis was used for analysis. To identify major factors influencing the consumption of fruits and vegetables, a classification-tree analysis was carried out. Results: Among those who reported a stroke diagnosis, the frequencies of consumption of fruits and vegetables were influenced by their age, place of residence (urban or rural), economic status, educational level, occupation, number of family members, frequency of eating out, and having meals (breakfast or lunch) with family members. Two factors from fruits and three factors from vegetables were generated by exploratory factor analyses. Urban residents ate fruits and vegetables more frequently in all factors than rural residents. Eating frequencies of 'seasonal fruits (orange, apple, strawberry, melon, pear and watermelon)', 'easily-accessible fruits (persimmon, tangerine, grape, peach, banana)', and 'Western-style vegetables (cabbage, mushroom, carrot, tomato, spinach)' were influenced by the socioeconomic status. Eating frequencies of 'Korean-style vegetables (bean sprout, radish leaves, pumpkin/squash, sea weed)', 'preserved vegetables (Korean cabbage, radish, laver, cucumber)' were influenced by having breakfast with family members. Conclusions: The results of this study suggested that by eating more fruits and vegetables, more preventive effects against secondary stroke attack are expected in stroke patients who live in the rural areas and who do not eat breakfast with family members. In addition, more outreach and education programs are needed for them.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.31 no.3
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• pp.343-353
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• 1998

To assess the food intake and diet quality of Korean adults living in rural areas , a dietary survey using a one day 24-hour recall method was conducted with 2037 subjects over 30 years of age living in Yeonchon-gun , Kyungki province of Korea. Eighty percent of total food intake was in the form of vegetable food and the rest in the form o fanimal food . Diet quality was assessed by food group pattern, dietary diversity score(DDS), and dietary variety score(DVS). When counting the major food groups consumed (DDs), 47% of subjects had a DDS of 3 and 31% of subjects had a DDs of 4. On average, subjects habitually consumed 14.9 different foods daily, with the mean score of diet variety (DVS) for males(14.4) being significantly lower than for females (15.2). Persons who had higher DDSS also had higher DVSS(p<0.001). As the DDs increased , MAR(Mean adequacy ratio) improved. Correlation coefficients between NAR(nutrient adequacy ratio) and DVS ranged from r=0.34 for vitamin C to re=0.51 for vitamin B$_2$. NAR also improved as the number of foods or food groups consumed increased (p<0.001). Associations between the NAR of most nutrients with DVS was better than those with DDS. Based on these results, the food intake of the study subjects was not adequate, especially with regards to the dairy and fruit groups . Dietary diversity (DDS) and especially dietary variety (DVS) would be useful in assess nutrient intake because of their associations with total diet quality.

• Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life
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• v.18 no.5
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• pp.675-683
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• 2008

본 연구는 초등 고학년 아동의 과일과 채소 섭취 수준 측정을 위한 간단한 식품 섭취 빈도 조사지를 개발 및 평가하고자 실시되었다. 2001년도 국민건강영양조사에 참가한 만 $9{\sim}11$세 아동의 24-시간 회상 자료에 기초하여 식품섭취빈도 조사지의 항목 선정을 위한 기초 조사를 하였다. 각 과일과 채소 식품의 일일 평균 섭취량을 전체 아동 및 섭취량의 4분위 집단 별로 산출한 후, 이 자료를 바탕으로 전체 인구 집단의 섭취량을 대변할 수 있을 뿐만 아내라 고 섭취군과 저 섭취군 간의 차이도 나타낼 수 있는 항목을 선정하였다. 총 9개의 과일 항목과 11개의 채소 항목이 식품 섭취 빈도지에 포함되도록 선정되었으며, 섭취 빈도에 대한 응답 항목은 지난 7일 간의 섭취에 대하여 1개의 선택 범주가 제시되었다. 개발된 조사지의 신뢰도와 상대적 타당도에 대한 평가는 서울에 위치한 한 공립 초등학교에 재학 중인 153명의 $4{\sim}6$학년 학생들을 대상으로 실시하였다. 한 달간의 간격을 두고 2회에 걸쳐 조사를 실시한 자료를 이용하여 검사-재검사 신뢰도를 평가하였으며, 두 번째 방문 시에 28개의 과일 및 채소 항목을 추가로 포함하고 있는 식품섭취빈도 조사지를 더불어 실시한 자료를 바탕으로 상대적 타당도를 평가하였다. 상관 분석과 항목 별 빈도 응답 및 섭취 수준에 따른 집단내 순위 분류의 일관성에 대한 분석을 실시한 결과, 본 연구에서 개발된 20개 항목의 과일 채소 식품 섭취빈도 조사지의 신뢰도와 상대적 타당도가 적정 수준 이상으로 나타났다. 신뢰도를 살펴보기 위한 개별 항목 및 과일, 채소, 과일+채소 섭취 빈도에 대한 상관계수는 $0.22{\sim}0.64$(p<0.001)이었으며, 항목별 빈도 응답의 일관도는 평균 69.3%(<=1 빈도 응답차이)와 81.3%(<=2 빈도 응답 차이)로 나타났다. 상대적 타당도를 살펴보기 위한 과일, 채소, 과일+채소 섭취 빈도에 대한 상관계수는 $0.91{\sim}0.93$(p<0.0001)로 높게 나타났다. 따라서 본 연구를 통하여 개발된 식품섭취빈도 조사지는 초등고학년 아동의 과일채소 섭취 수준을 간단히 심사하거나 평가하는 도구로서 유용하리라 사료된다.