• Science of Emotion and Sensibility
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• v.15 no.4
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• pp.527-540
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• 2012

We examined the effect of delayed and immediate rewards on short- and long-term memory performance depending on the level of stress. It has been demonstrated that delaying feedback during memory tasks could lead to better retention than presenting it immediately (a.k.a., feedback delay benefit or delay-retention effect). In this study, we manipulated stress level(high-stress or low-stress), reward-timing(delayed or immediate reward), reward-existence(500 or 0 won) and retrieval-timing(delayed or immediate memory test). On the high-stress learning condition, one week later, the number of correct answers with delayed-rewards were significantly more than that of delayed-no-rewards but there was not any difference between immediate-rewards and immediate-no-rewards. On the other hand, in the high-stressful immediate memory test, immediate-rewards only had a positive effect on memory performance. The results indicated that delayed rewards improved long-term memory performance by promoting memory consolidation and the sensitivity to rewards was higher under the high-stress condition.

• Journal of Institute of Control, Robotics and Systems
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• v.9 no.7
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• pp.527-535
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• 2003

A behavior-based control and learning architecture is proposed, where reinforcement learning is applied to learn proper associations between stimulus and response by using two types of memory called as short Term Memory and Long Term Memory. In particular, to solve delayed-reward problem, a knowledge-propagation (KP) method is proposed, where well-designed or well-trained S-R(stimulus-response) associations for low-level sensors are utilized to learn new S-R associations for high-level sensors, in case that those S-R associations require the same objective such as obstacle avoidance. To show the validity of our proposed KP method, comparative experiments are performed for the cases that (ⅰ) only a delayed reward is used, (ⅱ) some of S-R pairs are preprogrammed, (ⅲ) immediate reward is possible, and (ⅳ) the proposed KP method is applied.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Clothing and Textiles
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• v.37 no.4
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• pp.467-481
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• 2013

The study examined the main effect of the reward channel and reward time of customer loyalty programs for on-offline shopping channels; in addition, it investigated the interaction effect of the reward channels and merchandise as well as the interaction effect of the reward time and merchandise. An online apparel shopping web experiment was conducted with a 2 (reward channel: online channel reward vs. offline channel reward) ${\times}2$ (reward time: immediate vs. delayed) ${\times}2$ (merchandise: online channel product vs. offline channel products) between-subject factorial design. An online shopping channel was considered the core-shopping channel and a department store was considered the cross-shopping channel. Loyalty program value, core-channel loyalty and cross-channel loyalty were measured as dependent variables. A total of 845 shoppers (who had experiences in shopping in both channels) participated in the experiment. The results of the study revealed (1) the main effect of the reward channel on loyalty program value, core-channel loyalty and cross-channel loyalty [online>offline channel rewards], (2) the main effect of reward time on loyalty program value, core-channel loyalty and cross-channel loyalty [immediate>delayed reward], and (3) the interaction effect of the reward channel and merchandise on loyalty program value, core-channel loyalty, and cross-channel loyalty. (4) Finally the study found that loyalty program value affected cross-channel loyalty indirectly through core-channel loyalty. This study suggested diverse theoretical and managerial implications for multi-channel retailers.

• Child Studies in Asia-Pacific Contexts
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• v.2 no.2
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• pp.123-132
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• 2012

The current study examined 3- and 4-year-olds' affective decision-making in a variety of cultural contexts by comparing European Canadian children to Chinese Canadian, Hong Kong Chinese, and mainland Chinese children (N = 245). All children were tested with a delay of gratification task in which children chose between an immediate reward of lower value and a delayed reward of higher value. Results showed that Chinese Canadian and Hong Kong Chinese children chose more delayed rewards than European Canadian children, with mainland Chinese children showing a trend toward more delayed rewards. Across cultures, 4-year-olds chose more delayed rewards than 3-year-olds; and among 4-year-olds, girls made more such choices than boys. The findings are consistent with previous findings that exposure to Chinese culture is associated with better cool executive function, but they also highlight the importance of examining development across diverse cultural contexts.

• Korean Journal of Child Studies
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• v.17 no.2
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• pp.221-233
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• 1996

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of age, sex, cognitive style and reward presentation on delay of gratification. The subjects of this study were 120 children 4, 6 and 8 years of age attending preschool and an elementary school in Pusan. They were identified as impulsive or reflective according to their performance on Kagan's Matching Familiar Figures Test. The levels of reward presentation consisted of the reward which was presented physically and the reward which wasn't presented physically. Length of waiting time was recorded as the measure of maintenance of delay of gratification. The data of this study were analyzed with Two-way ANOVA, Duncan's Multiple Range Test. The major finding were as follows: (1) Delay time increased with age. (2) No sex difference is found in delay time. (3) Reflective children delayed longer than impulsive children in all age groups. (4) The reward which wasn't physically presented produced loner delay time than the reward which was physically presented in all age groups.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Telematics and Electronics S
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• v.34S no.8
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• pp.56-64
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• 1997

In distributed autonomous robotic systems, each robot must behaves by itself according to the its states and environements, and if necessary, must cooperates with other orbots in order to carray out a given task. Therefore it is essential that each robot has both learning and evolution ability to adapt the dynamic environments. In this paper, the new learning and evolution method based on reinforement learning having delayed reward ability and distributed genectic algorithms is proposed for behavior learning and evolution of collective autonomous mobile robots. Reinforement learning having delayed reward is still useful even though when there is no immediate reward. And by distributed genetic algorithm exchanging the chromosome acquired under different environments by communication each robot can improve its behavior ability. Specially, in order to improve the perfodrmance of evolution, selective crossover using the characteristic of reinforcement learning is adopted in this paper, we verify the effectiveness of the proposed method by applying it to cooperative search problem.

• Fashion & Textile Research Journal
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• v.13 no.2
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• pp.242-252
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• 2011

The purpose of the study was to investigate customer loyalty programs of diverse types of retailers. As offline retailers, department store and discount store retailers were examined, and as nonstore retailers, online store and TV home shopping retailers were investigated. Types of customer loyalty programs were analyzed based on Dowling and Uncles'(1997) loyalty program framework which included two schemes, types of reward(direct versus indirect rewards) and timing of reward(immediate versus delayed rewards). The study found that different types of retailers utilized different types of loyalty programs: Department store used all the type of rewards, discount store focused on direct/immediate rewards, online store retailers used direct/delayed rewards and/or direct/immediate rewards, and TV home shopping retailers focused on direct/delayed rewards. The study provided diverse managerial and academic implications.

• 제어로봇시스템학회:학술대회논문집
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• 2001.10a
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• pp.149.5-149
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• 2001

The robot soccer simulation game is a dynamic multi-agent environment. In this paper we suggest a new reinforcement learning approach to each agent´s dynamic positioning in such dynamic environment. Reinforcement learning is the machine learning in which an agent learns from indirect, delayed reward an optimal policy to choose sequences of actions that produce the greatest cumulative reward. Therefore the reinforcement learning is different from supervised learning in the sense that there is no presentation of input-output pairs as training examples. Furthermore, model-free reinforcement learning algorithms like Q-learning do not require defining or learning any models of the surrounding environment. Nevertheless ...

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Intelligent Systems
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• v.16 no.2
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• pp.131-137
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• 2006

In swarm robot systems, each robot must behaves by itself according to the its states and environments, and if necessary, must cooperates with other robots in order to carry out a given task. Therefore it is essential that each robot has both learning and evolution ability to adapt the dynamic environments. In this paper, the new learning and evolution method based on reinforcement learning having delayed reward ability and distributed genetic algorithms is proposed for behavior learning and evolution of collective autonomous mobile robots. Reinforcement learning having delayed reward is still useful even though when there is no immediate reward. And by distributed genetic algorithm exchanging the chromosome acquired under different environments by communication each robot can improve its behavior ability. Specially, in order to improve the performance of evolution, selective crossover using the characteristic of reinforcement learning is adopted in this paper. we verify the effectiveness of the proposed method by applying it to cooperative search problem.

• Asia Marketing Journal
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• v.14 no.2
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• pp.39-63
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• 2012

Previous studies of reward programs have generally focused on designing the best programs for consumers and suggested that consumers' perception of the value of reward programs can vary according to the type of reward program (e.g., hedonic vs. utilitarian and direct vs. indirect) and its timing (e.g., immediate vs. delayed). These studies have typically assumed that consumers' preference for reward programs has a positive effect on brand loyalty. However, Dowling and Uncles (1997) pointed out that this preference does not necessarily foster brand loyalty. In this regard, the present study verifies this assumption by examining the effects of consumers' perception of the value of reward programs on their brand loyalty. Although reward programs are widely used by online shopping malls, most studies have examined the conditions under which consumers are most likely to value loyalty programs in the context of offline shopping. In the context of online shopping, however, consumers' preferences may have little effect on their brand loyalty because they have more opportunities for comparing diverse reward programs offered by many online shopping malls. That is, in online shopping, finding attractive reward programs may require little effort on the part of consumers, who are likely to switch to other online shopping malls. Accordingly, this study empirically examines whether consumers' perception of the value of reward programs influences their brand loyalty in the context of online shopping. Meanwhile, consumers seek utilitarian and/or hedonic value from their online shopping activity(Jones et al., 2006; Barbin et al., 1994). They visit online shopping malls to buy something necessary (utilitarian value) and/or enjoy the process of shopping itself (hedonic value). In this sense, reward programs may reinforce utilitarian as well as hedonic value, and their effect may vary according to the type of reward (utilitarian vs. hedonic). According to Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001), consumers' perception of the value of a brand can influence their brand loyalty through brand trust and affect. Utilitarian value influences brand loyalty through brand trust, whereas hedonic value influences it through brand affect. This indicates that the effect of this perception on brand trust or affect may be moderated by the type of reward program. Specifically, this perception may have a greater effect on brand trust for utilitarian reward programs than for hedonic ones, whereas the opposite may be true for brand affect. Given the above discussion, the present study is conducted with three objectives in order to provide practical implications for online shopping malls to strategically use reward program for establishing profitable relationship with customers. First, the present study examines whether reward programs can be an effective marketing tool for increasing brand loyalty in the context of online shopping. Second, it investigates the paths through which consumers' perception of the value of reward programs influences their brand loyalty. Third, it analyzes the effects of this perception on brand trust and affect by considering the type of reward program as a moderator. This study suggests and empirically analyzes a new research model for examining how consumers' perception of the value of reward programs influences their brand loyalty in the context of online shopping. The model postulates the following 10 hypotheses about the structural relationships between five constructs: (H1) Consumers' perception of the value of reward programs has a positive effect on their program loyalty; (H2) Program loyalty has a positive effect on brand loyalty; (H3) Consumers' perception of the value of reward programs has a positive effect on their brand trust; (H4) Consumers' perception of the value of reward programs has a positive effect on their brand affect; (H5) Brand trust has a positive effect on program loyalty; (H6) Brand affect has a positive effect on program loyalty; (H7) Brand trust has a positive effect on brand loyalty; (H8) Brand affect has a positive effect on brand loyalty; (H9) Consumers' perception of the value of reward programs is more likely to influence their brand trust for utilitarian reward programs than for hedonic ones; and (H10) Consumers' perception of the value of reward programs is more likely to influence their brand affect for hedonic reward programs than for utilitarian ones. To test the hypotheses, we considered a sample of 220 undergraduate students in Korea (male:113). We randomly assigned these participants to one of two groups based on the type of reward program (utilitarian: transportation card, hedonic: movie ticket). We instructed the participants to imagine that they were offered these reward programs while visiting an online shopping mall. We then asked them to answer some questions about their perception of the value of the reward programs, program loyalty, brand loyalty, brand trust, and brand affect, in that order. We also asked some questions about their demographic backgrounds and then debriefed them. We employed the structural equation modeling (SEM) method with AMOS 18.0. The results provide support for some hypotheses (H1, H3, H4, H7, H8, and H9) while providing no support for others (H2, H5, H6, H10) (see Figure 1). Noteworthy is that the path proposed by previous studies, "value perception → program loyalty → brand loyalty," was not significant in the context of online shopping, whereas this study's proposed path, "value perception → brand trust/brand affect → brand loyalty," was significant. In addition, the results indicate that the type of reward program moderated the relationship between consumers' value perception and brand trust but not the relationship between their value perception and brand affect. These results have some important implications. First, this study is one of the first to examine how consumers' perception of the value of reward programs influences their brand loyalty in the context of online shopping. In particular, the results indicate that the proposed path, "value perception → brand trust/brand affect → brand loyalty," can better explain the effects of reward programs on brand loyalty than existing paths. Furthermore, these results suggest that online shopping malls should place greater emphasis on the type of reward program when devising reward programs. To foster brand loyalty, they should reinforce the type of shopping value that consumers emphasize by providing them with appropriate reward programs. If consumers prefer utilitarian value to hedonic value, then online shopping malls should offer utilitarian reward programs and vice versa.