• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.49 no.3
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• pp.154-201
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• 2016

During the Incipient and Early Silla phases, which witnessed the establishment and development of the ancient Silla state, the Wolseong North Burial Ground functioned as not only the central burial ground in the Gyeongju region of the capital of Silla but also as the central burial ground of the whole Silla state. Wolseong North Burial Ground is where transformations in Silla funerary architecture first occurred. As such, an empirical study of the tombs constructed at this burial ground can be regarded as a starting point from which an understanding of the development of the tomb culture of the Silla state may be achieved. This paper therefore aims to examine the changing nature of the tomb culture of the Early Silla phase through the burial data of Wolseong North Burial Ground and the Gyeongju region. Wooden chamber tombs were constructed from the late phase of Saroguk. At Wolseong North Burial Ground, which eventually developed into the central burial ground of the Gyeongju region, wooden chamber tombs embellished with stone packing emerged during the Incipient Silla phase; wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds, on the other hand, first appeared in the Early Silla phase and eventually became established as the central tomb type. A key difference between the wooden chamber tomb embellished with stone packing and the wooden chamber tomb with stone mound is that, in the case of the latter, stones were packed not only around sides of the wooden structure that acted as the burial chamber but also on top of this structure. The addition of a high earthen mound surrounded by protective ring of stones is another distinctive feature of the latter, presenting a contrast to the low mound of the former. During the Early Silla phase, two types of wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds were constructed at Wolseong North Burial Ground: those with burial chambers located above ground and those with subterranean burial chambers. Also constructed during this phase were the wooden chamber tomb embellished with packed stones, the wooden chamber tomb embellished with packed clay, simple earth cut burials, which had been used since the Incipient Silla phase, as well as the stone-lined burials with vertical entrance which first appeared in the Early Silla phase. However, of these different types of burials, it was only the wooden chamber tomb with stone mound that was covered with a 'high mound.' Differentiation between the different tomb types can also be observed in terms of location, type of burial chamber used, construction method, and tomb size. It is therefore possible to surmise that stratification between the different tomb types, which first emerged in the Incipient Silla phase, became intensified during the Early Silla phase.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.50 no.4
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• pp.198-221
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• 2017

The Jjoksaem site is the eastern sector of Daereungwon Ancient Tomb Complex, Gyeongju(the 512th Historic site) called Wolseong North Burial Ground in academic community. The excavation and research of this site was conducted from 2007 to 2015, with the purpose of basic data offering for the restoration of Silla tumuli and development of ancient tomb park. As a result of the investigation, more than 700 new tombs were discovered except the 155 tumuli founded in the Japanese colonial era. Moreover, more than 70 percent of the smaller tombs, such as outer coffin tombs, were discovered here. There are four characteristics of outer coffin tombs in Jjoksaem site. First, it is recognized the Gyeongju-styled outer coffin tombs have a long rectangular shape, distinct from Gimhae-styled outer coffin tombs in a rectangular shape. Second, they are divided into three groups by the size of the grave area. This is indirectly related to the rank and the status of the buried person. Third, these tombs began to be constructed at the end of the 3rd century before the time of wooden chamber tombs covered by stone and earthen mound. They were ruined because of the new tombs constructed at the period of Maripgan. This reflects that the identity of the former tombs was not respected by the communities in the later generations. Outer coffin tombs were consistently made to the end of the era of wooden chamber tombs covered by stone and earthen mound. Lastly, the area of burial ground of outer coffin tombs is limited by wooden chamber tombs covered by stone and wooden mounds. Otherwise, the location of the burial ground for the deceased is limited by the status of the deceased. The idea that wooden chamber tombs covered by stone and earthen mound are located on the above ground turns out to be incorrect. In Jjoksaem site, there is little difference between the height of the circular burial protection stone and the height of the digging lines of the other tombs. In the case of No.44 tumulus, the lowest step of the circular burial protection stones is lower than those of the other tombs and tumuli. Research of outer coffin tombs at Jjoksaem site will be to suggest important academic data about the changing period from Saroguk, as the head of chiefdom union, to Silla, as state.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.47 no.4
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• pp.162-177
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• 2014

This article examined the burial type, wooden coffin and its historical significance of Iksan Ssangneung, the royal tombs of Baekje. Ssangneung was found to be the royal tombs of King Mu(武王) and queen through the burial type, wooden coffin, articles such as chinese jade ornaments and the deep relationship between King Mu and Iksan region. The reason of constructing Baekje royal tombs in Iksan region can be examined at many aspects. First, Iksan was a very important place for King Mu. Because Iksan was the basis of his political growth. Also, Iksan was a important geopolitical location in relation with Silla(新羅). For this reason, Iksan was developed in earnest. The construction of major facilities such as royal palace and temples in Iksan suggest the transfer of the capital from Sabi(泗?) or the preparation and partial execution at least. However, the transfer of the capital was not completed. It can be seen as the incomplete city. However, even after King Mu Iksan was maintained as the important region by King Euja(義慈王). It can be seen through the maintenance of great temples such as Jeseoksa(帝釋寺) and Mireuksa(彌勒寺) built at later period of King Mu and royal palace area, even though royal palace had turned into the temple. These inherited consciousness may have been embodied in the act of building royal tombs of King Mu and queen.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.36
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• pp.181-226
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• 2003

In archeological aspects the 4th-6th centuries of the Silla kingdom has been callded the era of wooden chamber tombs with pebble and earth mounds(jeokseokmokwakbun). Moreover, the era is also regarded the age of the traditional and 'primitive' Korean religion which originated from inside the Korean Peninsula or the kingdom. However, the tombs and their burial accessories reveal that it is Taoism, not shamanism, that prevailed throughout the silla kingdom and its people during the jeokseokmokwakbun period. Above all things, almost all of the tombs excavated up to date yield in great quantities cinnabar and mica, which have been considered the best elixir of life in the Taoist world. Moreover the instruments to make the medicine for the deceased has been founded inside a tomb. The jeokseokmokwakbun tombs are famous for their great amount of buried articles and their grand scale. The tombs also have a large amount of gold, silver and beads, which are all thought to be the other cure-alls in taoism. Then why the silla people made the tombs and buried those elixirs of life for the deceased? The best answer we can imagine is this : for eternal living! In other words, cinnabar and mica are for the everlasting life of the deceased, the tombs were desingned as the 'eternal house' where the dead are living a immortal life. Needless to say, immortal living, even after he or she dies, is the ultimate purpose of taoism.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.38 no.4
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• pp.334-346
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• 2022

The manufacturing technique was studied through the structure and material characteristics of the walls and the painting layers of the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva mural of Geungnakjeon Hall, Daewonsa Temple. The mural is painted and connected to the earthen wall and the Junggit, and the wall is composed of wooden laths as a frame, the first and middle layers, the finishing layer, and the painting layer. The first layer, middle layer, and finishing layer constituting the wall were made by mixing weathered soil and sand. It was confirmed that the first layer had a high content of loess below silt, and the finishing layer had a high content of fine-sand and very fine sand. For the painting layer, a ground layer was prepared using soil-based mineral pigments, and lead white, white clay, atacamite, minium, and cinnabar (or vermilion) pigments were used on top of it. The Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva mural was confirmed to belong to a category similar to the soil-made buddhist mural paintings of Joseon Dynasty. However, it shows characteristics such as a high content of fine sand in the finishing layer and overlapping over other colors. Such material and structural characteristics can constitute important information for future mural conservation status diagnoses and conservation treatment plans.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.32 no.1
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• pp.21-32
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• 2016

Animal glue is a traditional material used extensively as adhesive and binder in mother-of-pearl, wooden structure, traditional painting, etc. Analysis of animal glue is usually performed with IR(infrared spectroscopy) based on the IR absorption of functional group. But, it has a limitation in confirming animal glue when a sample consists of several materials because of overlapping of the absorption band. Py/GC/MS(pyrolysis/gas chromatography/mass spectrometry) is a useful tool in analyzing the constituent of polymeric materials like animal glue by identifying their pyrolysate with very small amount of sample. In this study, confirmation of animal glue in a Dancheong sample was tried with this method. Characteristic pyrolytic compounds of animal glue and tung oil used in Dancheong were identified. Dancheong sample painted with Noerok as a coloring material, animal glue and tung oil was prepared and it was possible to find characteristic peaks of animal glue after thermal degradation and artificial weathering experiment. From this, we found that animal glue can be detected using py/GC/MS in cultural heritage samples consisting of several materials and in different condition. IR was also tried to analyze Dancheong sample and the results were compared with those of py/GC/MS for the detection of animal glue.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.52 no.3
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• pp.240-251
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• 2019

This study examined the manufacturing technology used for the flat iron axes excavated from Ulsan Hadae. Their microstructures were analyzed using metallurgical methods. In addition, a variety of manufacturing technologies were examined and compared using existing research materials on flat iron axes. As a result of analyzing ten flat iron axes, which were excavated in the order that they were laid out in a row in one of the wooden coffin tombs at Ulsan Hadae, Tomb No. 44, it was possible to classify the flat iron axe manufacturing technology and system into three types: 'pure iron - shape processing', 'pure iron - shape processing - carburizing', and 'pure iron - shape processing - carburizing - decarburizing.' All of the flat iron axes were produced by forging, and most of them were made by beating the pure iron into their shapes. In particular, a number of the flat iron axes were reinforced through a carburizing process after shaping the iron. This appears as steel products forming the basis of the steel industry at the time were commonly used as an intermediary material or currency. On the other hand, it was commonly found in all samples that the hardening was not performed after shaping or carburizing. Since the microstructure of the flat iron axes made of pure iron contained a large number of impure inclusions and the result of analyzing the components of the non-metal inclusions showed characteristics of slag which contains a mixture of glass phase and wustite, it is possible that low-temperature reduction was used in the refining process.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.38 no.2
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• pp.109-116
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• 2022

This study identified Korean red pine (Pinus densiflora) and exotic pines (Pinus resinosa, Pinus sylvestris) with a similar anatomical structure using a dendro-anatomical method that applied dendrochronology, tracheid length, and uniseriate ray cell size. Korean red pine samples were collected from 13 national parks, while exotic pine samples were secured from two wood importers. Tracheid length was measured by distinguishing earlywood from latewood, and uniseriate ray height and cell number were determined. As the exotic pine tree-ring chronology was consistent with the foreign standard tree-ring chronology and displayed high statistical significance, the country and region where the pine samples had been felled and the exact felling date were confirmed. According to the results, which compared tracheid length and uniseriate ray size, no difference was observed between the Korean red and Russian pines. However, the tracheid length of the Russian pines turned out to be slightly longer than the length of the Korean red pine. Additional research securing a larger number of exotic pines (P.resinosa, P.sylvestris) is required to yield more accurate results in the future.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.6 no.2 s.8
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• pp.126-140
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• 1997

There were some cases in the past that waterlogged wooden finds were neglected and damaged severely because adequate methods of conservation processing could not be found. However, since a wooden ship unearthed in Anapji of Kyongju was processed by poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) impregnation method in 1975, most of waterlogged wooden finds have been processed by diverse scientific methods. Most commonly-used conservation processing methods of waterlogged wooden finds in Korea are PEG impregnation method, alcohol-ether-resin method and vacuum freeze-drying method. New methods developed recently in Europe and Japan such as sucrose method, sugar-alcohol method and higher alcohol method are also being studied here. The most important task in conservation processing of waterlogged wood is to find good impregnation materials suitable to Korean climate and environments and develop their application methods. For efficient conservation processing, it is important to know the natures of finds and impregnation materials and relation between impregnation and drying condition. To achieve it, many experiments and studies are needed.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Surveying, Geodesy, Photogrammetry and Cartography
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• v.27 no.2
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• pp.273-279
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• 2009

The descendants have a responsibility to conserve their cultural treasure and hand it down to posterity. Most of existing wooden properties, affected by environmental factors for many years, have been rebuilt or repaired many times. Kwandeogjeong, Cultural Properties Materials 322, has gone through rebuilding or repairing 11 times. It was natural that Kwandeogjeong lost its originality and attempt to restore it was made by Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea. But the restoration depends on a piece of picture, which was taken before 1900. It had been impossible to draw any data from the picture for restoration. In this study, I was able to obtain data for its restoration through geometrical analysis, using the vanishing point of the picture. These data were also used as preliminary data for its restoration.