• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.41 no.4
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• pp.487-495
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• 2017

Background: Although flowers of Panax ginseng Meyer (FPG), Panax quinquefolius L. (FPQ), and Panax notoginseng Burk. (FPN) have been historically used as both medicine and food, each is used differently in practice. Methods: To investigate the connection between components and enhancing immunity activity of FPG, FPQ, and FPN, a method based on a rapid LC coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight MS and immunomodulatory activity study evaluated by a carbon clearance test were combined. Results: According to quantitative results, the ratio of the total content of protopanaxatiol-type ginsenosides to protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides in FPN was 0, but ranged from 1.10 to 1.32 and from 0.23 to 0.35 in FPG and FPQ, respectively. The ratio of the total content of neutral ginsenosides to the corresponding malonyl-ginsenosides in FPN ($5.52{\pm}1.33%$) was higher than FPG ($3.2{\pm}0.64%$) and FPQ ($2.39{\pm}0.57%$). The colorimetric analysis showed the content of total ginsenosides in FPQ, FPG, and FPN to be $13.75{\pm}0.60%$, $17.45{\pm}0.42%$, and $12.45{\pm}1.77%$, respectively. The carbon clearance assay indicated that the phagocytic activity of FPG and FPQ was higher than that of FPN. A clear discrimination among FPG, FPQ, and FPN was observed in the principal component analysis score plots. Seven compounds were confirmed to contribute strongly by loading plots, which may be the cause of differences in efficacy. Conclusion: This study provides basic information about the chemical and bioactive comparison of FPG, FPQ, and FPN, indicating that protopanaxtriol-type ginsenosides and malonyl-ginsenosides may play a key role in their enhancing immunity properties.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.35 no.4
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• pp.504-513
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• 2011

In order to develop a novel system for the discrimination of five ginseng cultivars (Panax ginseng Meyer), single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping assays with real-time polymerase chain reaction were conducted. Nucleotide substitution in gDNA library clones of P. ginseng cv. Yunpoong was targeted for the SNP genotyping assay. From these SNP sites, a set of modified SNP specific fluorescence probes (PGP74, PGP110, and PGP130) and novel primer sets have been developed to distinguish among five ginseng cultivars. The combination of the SNP type of the five cultivars, Chungpoong, Yunpoong, Gopoong, Kumpoong, and Sunpoong, was identified as 'ATA', 'GCC', 'GTA', 'GCA', and 'ACC', respectively. This study represents the first report of the identification of ginseng cultivars by fluorescence probes. An SNP genotyping assay using fluorescence probes could prove useful for the identification of ginseng cultivars and ginseng seed management systems and guarantee the purity of ginseng seed.

• Journal of Plant Biotechnology
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• v.30 no.2
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• pp.173-177
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• 2003

The effect of IBA and NAA on adventitious root cultures of Panax ginseng C.A. Mater were investigated. Results indicated differences in growth and development of the roots according to 5mg/L IBA and 2mg/L NAA. IBA resulted in a normal root development and a higher growth compared to NAA. The roots formed on NAA-containing media were shorter and thicker than those in IBA, showing a hypertrophy of the root tip. NAA induced more than 1.6 times higher ethylene production compared to IBA, which caused inhibition of the root growth. Under the ventilation, in the other hand, on difference was observed in ethylene concentration and the root growth between IBA and NAA treatments. Under ventilation ethylene production was not detected until 10 days of culture, while detected from the initial stage under on ventilation. The results suggested the importance of ventilation during the culture for the growth and development of ginseng adventitious roots.

• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.16 no.6
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• pp.416-420
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• 2008

This study was conducted to investigate the influence of shading material on the chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance and its any correlations in Panax ginseng C.A.Meyer. Fo was higher in polyethylene shade net than in silver-coated shading plate, but this treatment caused a lower Fm in comparison with silver-coated shading plate. Also, Fv/Fm and PhiPS2 showed higher in silver-coated shading plate than in polyethylene shade net. The relationship between net photosynthetic rate and transpiration, stomatal conductance were increased as the PAR (Photosynthetic active radiation) was increased and reached maximum at the $200-400\;{\mu}mol/m^{2}/s$ of PAR in all of leaves, and the higher in silver-coated shading plate than in polyethylene shade net. A linear equation was obtained between net photosynthetic rate and transpiration, net photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance. SPAD was higher in silver-coated shading plate than in polyethylene shade net.

• Journal of Plant Biology
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• v.29 no.4
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• pp.295-315
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• 1986

Structure and differentiation mechanism of the seed coat of Panax ginseng are studied with light and electron microscopes to clarify the developmental processes of seed coat and the structural changes during the differentiation of the seed. The seed coat of ginseng is differentiated from the inner cell layers of ovary wall, which can be compared with the seed coat differentiated from integument(s) in other plants. The single integument is differentiated into endothelium, which is degenerated to one layer of 4${\mu}{\textrm}{m}$ in thickness, composed of remants of cell wall components in fully ripened seed. The ripened seed coat is composed of three layers; fringe layer, inner layer and palisade layer, and all of the them are crossed at right angles with one another. This may be the cause of protection of the kernel from other mechanical injuries. The thickness of fully ripened seed coat is about 300~600 ${\mu}{\textrm}{m}$, and arrangements of sclereids are irregular. However, the raphe region of seed coat is thin about 200 ${\mu}{\textrm}{m}$ in thickness and sclereids in that region are arranged regularly. This is the important cause for the cleavage of the seed coat during post-maturation process. The vascular bundles on the raphe are still remaining after sarcocarps are removed, and one of the branches of vascular bundles entered into the seed coat through the hilum and extended to chalazal region. During post-maturation process, the supply of water being necessary for growth of embryo may be accompolished by the vascular bundles entered into the seed coat through the opened hilum.

• Proceedings of the Ginseng society Conference
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• 1990.06a
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• pp.49-57
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• 1990

It has been well known that extended exposure to reactive oxygens causes severe damage to susceptible biomolecules. In this study, the effects of flavonoids including trifling and kaempferol from Ginseng leaves on single oxygen induced photohemolysis of erythrocytes and free radical scavenging activities were investigated . Each flavonoid aglycone (5-50UM) such as kaempferol, quercetin or baicalein exhibited a high protective effect against the photohemolysis. They protected the cells by scavenging 102 and free radicals. Although the free radical scavenging activities of the flavonoid glycosides were not much lower than those of their corresponding aglycones, their insolubility into lipid bilayers of membrane made them less effective in preventing the photohemolysis induced by 1O2. The 102 and free radical scavenging activities of flavonoids were estimated by the decomposition of the flavonoid by 1O2 and the bleaching of free radicals by the flavonoid, respectively. The solubilization of the flavonoid into micelle or erythrocytes was deduced from spectrophotometric and microscopic observations. The cooperation of L-ascorbic acid and a flavonoid, and a possible involvement of lipoxygenase or cyclooxygenase in the photohemolysis mechanism were discussed. Keywords Panax ginseng C.A Meyer, ginseng leaves, flavonoids, singe1 oxygen, Photohemolysis.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.25 no.4
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• pp.167-170
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• 2001

Experiments were conducted to study the optimum chilling period for breaking physiological dormancy of dehisced ginseng(Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) seed. Embryo of ginseng seed is too small to be noticed with naked eyed on harvesting time. Embryo grew to half size of endosperm after seeds were stratified for 3 months. It takes 6 months for this embryo to reach the size enough for germination. And it grew faster indoors than outdoors. Dehisced ginseng seed with full-size embryo did not germinate at room temperature and required chilling treatment for 75days in outdoors and 90 days in cold chamber. While seed receiving sufficient chilling treatment were left to be in room temperature, the chilling effect decreased remarkably.

• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.15 no.2
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• pp.100-104
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• 2007

A protocol for the production of transgenic Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer was established via Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated genetic transformation of direct somatic embryos. A number of conditions related to the co-cultivation were tested with respect to maximizing transformation efficiency. The results showed that pH of the co-cultivation medium (5.7), the bacterial growth phase (optical density; $OD_{600}$ = 0.8), co-cultivation period (3 days), and acetosyringone concentration $(100\;{\mu}M)$ had positive effects on transformation. Selected plantlets were cultured on the medium at an elevated hygromycin level(30 mg/l). Integration of the transgenes into the P. ginseng nuclear genome was confirmed by PCR analysis using hpt primers and by Southern hybridization using hpt-specific probe. The transgenic plantlets were obtained after 3-month cultivation and did not show any detectable variation in morphology or growth characteristics compared to wild-type plants.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.40 no.2
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• pp.176-184
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• 2016

Background: Wild ginseng, Panax ginseng Meyer, is an endangered species of medicinal plants. In the present study, we analyzed variations within the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) cluster to gain insight into the genetic diversity of the Oriental ginseng, P. ginseng, at artificial plant cultivation. Methods: The roots of wild P. ginseng plants were sampled from a nonprotected natural population of the Russian Far East. The slides were prepared from leaf tissues using the squash technique for cytogenetic analysis. The 18S rDNA sequences were cloned and sequenced. The distribution of nucleotide diversity, recombination events, and interspecific phylogenies for the total 18S rDNA sequence data set was also examined. Results: In mesophyll cells, mononucleolar nuclei were estimated to be dominant (75.7%), while the remaining nuclei contained two to four nucleoli. Among the analyzed 18S rDNA clones, 20% were identical to the 18S rDNA sequence of P. ginseng from Japan, and other clones differed in one to six substitutions. The nucleotide polymorphism was more expressed at the positions 440-640 bp, and distributed in variable regions, expansion segments, and conservative elements of core structure. The phylogenetic analysis confirmed conspecificity of ginseng plants cultivated in different regions, with two fixed mutations between P. ginseng and other species. Conclusion: This study identified the evidences of the intragenomic nucleotide polymorphism in the 18S rDNA sequences of P. ginseng. These data suggest that, in cultivated plants, the observed genome instability may influence the synthesis of biologically active compounds, which are widely used in traditional medicine.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.20 no.4
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• pp.389-415
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• 1996

Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer(Araliaceae) has been traditionally used as an expensive and precious medicine in oriental countries for more than 5, 000 years. Ginseng saponin isolated from the root of Panax ginseng have been regarded as the main effective components responsible for the pharmacological and biological activities. Such as antiaging effects. antidiabetic effects anticancer effects. Protection against physical and chemical stress. Analgesic and antipyretic effects. Effects on the central nervous system, tranquilizing action and others. Thirty kinds of ginsenosides have been so far isolated from ginseng saponin and their chemical structures have been elucidated since 1960's. Among which protopanaxadiol type is 19 kinds. protopanaxatriol type. 10 kinds and oleanane type, one. Since ginsenosides are generally labile under acidic conditions ordinary acid hydrolysis is always accompanied by many side reactions, such as epimerization. hydroxylation and cyclization of side chain of the sapogenins Especially. it is well known that C-20 glycosyl linkage of ginsenoside was hydrolysed on heating with acetic acid to give an equilibrated mixture of 20(S) and 20(R) epimers. And also, the chemical transformations of the secondary metabolites have appeared during the steaming process to prepare red ginseng. Indicating demalonylation of malonyl ginsenosides, elimination of glycosyl residue at C-20 and isomerization of hydroxyl configuration at C-20. But these studies have not provided a comprehensive picture in explaning how these ginsenosides showed val'iotas pharmacological activities of ginseng. Though some of them have been involved in the mechanism of pharmacological actions. Recently, non-saponin components have received a great deal of attention for their antioxidant, anticancer antidiabetic, immunomodulating. anticomplementary activities and so on. To meet the demand for such wide applications, studies on the non-saponin components play an important role in providing a good evidence of pharmacological and biol ogical activities. Among the non-saponin constituents of Korean ginseng, polyacetylenes, phenols. Sesquiterpenes, alkaloids. polysaccharides oligosaccharides, oligopeptides and aminoglycosides together with ginsenosides of terrestrial part are mainly described.