• MISULJARYO - National Museum of Korea Art Journal
• /
• v.96
• /
• pp.18-53
• /
• 2019

The paintings Gyeongpodae Pavilion and Chongseokjeong Pavilion were recently donated to the National Museum of Korea and unveiled to the public for the first time at the 2019 special exhibition "Through the Eyes of Joseon Painters: Real Scenery Landscapes of Korea." These two paintings carry significant implications for understanding Joseon art history. Because the fact that they were components of a folding screen produced after a sightseeing tour of the Gwandong regions in 1557 has led to a broadening of our understanding of sixteenth-century landscape painting. This paper explores the art historical meanings of Gyeongpodae Pavilion and Chongseokjeong Pavilion by examining the contents in the two paintings, dating them, analyzing their stylistic characteristics, and comparing them with other works. The production background of Gyeongpodae Pavilion and Chongseokjeong Pavilion can be found in the colophon of Chongseokjeong Pavilion. According to this writing, Sangsanilro, who is presumed to be Park Chung-gan (?-1601) in this paper, and Hong Yeon(?~?) went sightseeing around Geumgangsan Mountain (or Pungaksan Mountain) and the Gwandong region in the spring of 1557, wrote a travelogue, and after some time produced a folding screen depicting several famous scenic spots that they visited. Hong Yeon, whose courtesy name was Deokwon, passed the special civil examination in 1551 and has a record of being active until 1584. Park Chung-gan, whose pen name was Namae, reported the treason of Jeong Yeo-rip in 1589. In recognition of this meritorious deed, he was promoted to the position of Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Punishments, rewarded with the title of first-grade pyeongnan gongsin(meritorious subject who resolved difficulties), and raised to Lord of Sangsan. Based on the colophon to Chongseokjeong Pavilion, I suggest that the two paintings Gyeongpodae Pavilion and Chongseokjeong Pavilion were painted in the late sixteenth century, more specifically after 1557 when Park Chung-gan and Hong Yeon went on their sightseeing trip and after 1571 when Park, who wrote the colophon, was in his 50s or over. The painting style used in depicting the landscapes corresponds to that of the late sixteenth century. The colophon further states that Gyeongpodae Pavilion and Chongseokjeong Pavilion were two paintings of a folding screen. Chongseokjeong Pavilion with its colophon is thought to have been the final panel of this screen. The composition of Gyeongpodae Pavilion recalls the onesided three-layered composition often used in early Joseon landscape paintings in the style of An Gyeon. However, unlike such landscape paintings in the An Gyeon style, Gyeongpodae Pavilion positions and depicts the scenery in a realistic manner. Moreover, diverse perspectives, including a diagonal bird's-eye perspective and frontal perspective, are employed in Gyeongpodae Pavilion to effectively depict the relations among several natural features and the characteristics of the real scenery around Gyeongpodae Pavilion. The shapes of the mountains and the use of moss dots can be also found in Welcoming an Imperial Edict from China and Chinese Envoys at Uisungwan Lodge painted in 1557 and currently housed in the Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies at Seoul National University. Furthermore, the application of "cloud-head" texture strokes as well as the texture strokes with short lines and dots used in paintings in the An Gyeon style are transformed into a sense of realism. Compared to the composition of Gyeongpodae Pavilion, which recalls that of traditional Joseon early landscape painting, the composition of Chongseokjeong Pavilion is remarkably unconventional. Stone pillars lined up in layers with the tallest in the center form a triangle. A sense of space is created by dividing the painting into three planes(foreground, middle-ground, and background) and placing the stone pillars in the foreground, Saseonbong Peaks in the middle-ground, and Saseonjeong Pavilion on the cliff in the background. The Saseonbong Peaks in the center occupy an overwhelming proportion of the picture plane. However, the vertical stone pillars fail to form an organic relation and are segmented and flat. The painter of Chongseokjeong Pavilion had not yet developed a three-dimensional or natural spatial perception. The white lower and dark upper portions of the stone pillars emphasize their loftiness. The textures and cracks of the dense stone pillars were rendered by first applying light ink to the surfaces and then adding fine lines in dark ink. Here, the tip of the brush is pressed at an oblique angle and pulled down vertically, which shows an early stage of the development of axe-cut texture strokes. The contrast of black and white and use of vertical texture strokes signal the forthcoming trend toward the Zhe School painting style. Each and every contour and crack on the stone pillars is unique, which indicates an effort to accentuate their actual characteristics. The birds sitting above the stone pillars, waves, and the foam of breaking waves are all vividly described, not simply in repeated brushstrokes. The configuration of natural features shown in the above-mentioned Gyeongpodae Pavilion and Chongseokjeong Pavilion changes in other later paintings of the two scenic spots. In the Gyeongpodae Pavilion, Jukdo Island is depicted in the foreground, Gyeongpoho Lake in the middle-ground, and Gyeongpodae Pavilion and Odaesan Mountain in the background. This composition differs from the typical configuration of other Gyeongpodae Pavilion paintings from the eighteenth century that place Gyeongpodae Pavilion in the foreground and the sea in the upper section. In Chongseokjeong Pavilion, stone pillars are illustrated using a perspective viewing them from the sea, while other paintings depict them while facing upward toward the sea. These changes resulted from the established patterns of compositions used in Jeong Seon(1676~1759) and Kim Hong-do(1745~ after 1806)'s paintings of Gwandong regions. However, the configuration of the sixteenth-century Gyeongpodae Pavilion, which seemed to have no longer been used, was employed again in late Joseon folk paintings such as Gyeongpodae Pavilion in Gangneung. Famous scenic spots in the Gwandong region were painted from early on. According to historical records, they were created by several painters, including Kim Saeng(711~?) from the Goryeo Dynasty and An Gyeon(act. 15th C.) from the early Joseon period, either on a single scroll or over several panels of a folding screen or several leaves of an album. Although many records mention the production of paintings depicting sites around the Gwandong region, there are no other extant examples from this era beyond the paintings of Gyeongpodae Pavilion and Chongseokjeong Pavilion discussed in this paper. These two paintings are thought to be the earliest works depicting the Gwandong regions thus far. Moreover, they hold art historical significance in that they present information on the tradition of producing folding screens on the Gwandong region. In particular, based on the contents of the colophon written for Chongseokjeong Pavilion, the original folding screen is presumed to have consisted of eight panels. This proves that the convention of painting eight views of Gwangdong had been established by the late sixteenth century. All of the existing works mentioned as examples of sixteenth-century real scenery landscape painting show only partial elements of real scenery landscape painting since they were created as depictions of notable social gatherings or as a documentary painting for practical and/or official purposes. However, a primary objective of the paintings of Gyeongpodae Pavilion and Chongseokjeong Pavilion was to portray the ever-changing and striking nature of this real scenery. Moreover, Park Chung-gan wrote a colophon and added a poem on his admiration of the scenery he witnessed during his trip and ruminated over the true character of nature. Thus, unlike other previously known real-scenery landscape paintings, these two are of great significance as examples of real-scenery landscape paintings produced for the simple appreciation of nature. Gyeongpodae Pavilion and Chongseokjeong Pavilion are noteworthy in that they are the earliest remaining examples of the historical tradition of reflecting a sightseeing trip in painting accompanied by poetry. Furthermore, and most importantly, they broaden the understanding of Korean real-scenery landscape painting by presenting varied forms, compositions, and perspectives from sixteenth-century real-scenery landscape paintings that had formerly been unfound.

• KOREAN JOURNAL OF CROP SCIENCE
• /
• v.18
• /
• pp.88-123
• /
• 1975

To obtain useful fundamental informations for improving cultural practices of barley, an investigation was made on the influences of different fertilizer level and seeding rate as well as seeding date on yield and yield components and their balancing procedure using barley variety Suwon ＃ 18, and at the same time, 8 varieties including Suwon ＃ 18 were also tested to clarify the varietal responses in terms of their yield and yield components under different seeding date at Crop Experiment Station, Suwon, during the period of 1969 and 1970. The results obtained were summarized as follows; 1. Days to emergence of barley variety Suwon ＃ 18 at Suwon, took 8 to 19 days in accordance with given different seeding date (from Sept. 21 to Oct. 31). Earlier emergence was observed by early seeding and most of the seeds were emerged at 15$0^{\circ}C$ cumulated soil temperature at 5cm depth from surface under the favorable condition. 2. Degree of cold injury in different seeding date was seemed to be affected by the growth rate of seedlings and climatic condition during the wintering period. Over growth and number of leaves less than 5 to 6 on the main stem before wintering were brought in severe cold damage during the wintering period. 3. Even though the number of leaves on the main stem were variable from 11 to 16 depending upon the seeding date. this differences were occurred before wintering and less variation was observed after wintering. Particularly, differences of the number of main stem leaves from September 21 to October 11 seeding date were occurred due to the differences of number of main stem leaves before wintering. 4. Dry matter accumulation before wintering was high in early seeded plot and gradually decreased in accordance with delayed seeding date and less different in dry matter weight was observed after wintering. However, the increment rate of this dry matter was high from regrowth to heading time and became low during the ripening period. 5. Number of tillers per $\m^2$ was higher in early seeding than late one and dense planting was higher in the number of tillers than sparse planting. Number of tillers per plant was lower in number and variation in dense planting, and reverse tendency was observed in sparse planting. By increasing seedling rate in early seeding date the number of tiller per plant was remarkably decreased, but the seeding rate didn't affect the individual tillering capacity in the late seeding date. 6. Seedlings were from early planting reached maximum tillering stage earlier than those from the late planting and no remarkable changes was observed due to increased seeding rate. However. increased seeding rate tends to make it earlier the maximum tillering stage early. 7. Stage of maximum tillering was coincided with stage of 4-5 main stem leaves regardless the seeding date. 8. Number of heads per $\m^2$ was increased with increased seeding rate but considerable year variation in number of heads was observed by increased fertilizer level. Therefore, it was clear that there is no difficulties in increasing number of heads per $\m^2$ through increasing both fertilizer level and seeding rate. This type of tendency was more remarkable at optimum seeding time. In the other hand, seeding at optimum time is more important than increasing seeding rate, but increasing seeding rate was more effective in late seeding for obtaining desirable number of heads per $\m^2$. 9. Number of heads per $\m^2$ was decreased generally in all varieties tested in late seeding, but the degree of decrease by late seeding was lower in Suwon ＃ 18. Yuegi, Hangmi and Buheung compared with Suwon ＃ 4, Suwon ＃ 6, Chilbo and Yungwolyukak. 10. Highly significant positive correlations were obtained between number of head and tillers per $\m^2$ from heading date in September 21 seeding, from before-wintering in October 1 seeding and in all growth period from October 11 to October 31 seeding. However, relatively low correlation coefficient was estimated between number of heads and tillers counted around late March to early April in any seeding date. 11. Valid tiller ratio varied from 33% to 76% and highest yield was obtained when valid tiller ratio was about 50%. Therefore, variation of valid tiller ratio was greater due to seeding date differences than due to seeding rate. Early seeding decreased the valid tiller ratio and gradually increased by delaying seeding date but decreased by increasing seeding rate. Among the varieties tested Suwon ＃ 18, Hangmi, Yuegi as well as Buheung should be high valid tiller ratio not only in late seeding but also in early seeding. In contrast to this phenomena, Chilbo, Suwon ＃ 4, Suwon ＃ 6 and Yungwolyukak expressed low valid tiller ratio in general, and also exhibited the same tendency in late seeding date. 12. Number of grains per spike was increased by increasing fertilizer level and decreased by increasing seeding rate. Among the seeding date tested. October 21 (1969) and October 11 (1970) showed lowest number of grains per spike which was increased in both early seeding and late seeding date. There were no definite tendencies observed along with seeding date differences in respective varieties tested. 13. Variation of 1000 grain weight due to fertilizer level applied, seeding date and seeding rate was not so high as number of grains per spike and number of heads per $\m^2$, but exhibited high year variation. Increased seeding rate decreased the 1000 grain weight. Among the varieties tested Chilbo and Buheung expressed heavy grain weight, while Suwon ＃ 18, Hangmi and Yuegi showed comparatively light grain weight. 14. Optimum seeding date in Suwon area was around October 1 to October 11. Yield was generally increased by increasing fertilizer level. Yield decrease due to early seeding was compensated in certain extent by increased fertilizer application. 15. Yield variations due to seeding rate differences were almost negligible compare to the variations due to fertilizer level and seeding date. In either early seeding or law fertilizer level yield variation due to seeding rate was not so remarkable. Increment of fertilizer application was more effective for yield increase especially at increased seeding rate. And also increased seeding rate fairly compensated the decrease of yield in late seeding date. 16. Optimum seeding rate was considered to be around 18-26 liters per 10a at N-P-K=10.5-6-6 kg/10a fertilizer level considering yield stabilization. 17. Varietal differences in optimum seeding date was quite remarkable Suwon ＃ 6, Suwon ＃ 4. Buheung noted high yield at early seeding and Suwon ＃ 18, Yuegi and Hangmi yielded higher in seeding date of October 10. However, Buheung showed late seeding adaptability. 18. Highly significant positive correlations were observed between yield and yield components in all treatments. However, this correlation coefficient was increased positively by increased fertilizer level and decreased by increased seeding rate. Significant negative correlation coefficients were estimated between yield and number of grains per spike, since increased number of heads per m2 at the same level of fertilizer tends to decrease the number of grains per spike. Comparatively low correlation coefficients were estimated between 1000 grain weight and yield. 19. No significant relations in terms of correlation coefficients was observed between number of heads per $\m^2$ and 1000 grain weight or number of grains per head.

• KOREAN JOURNAL OF CROP SCIENCE
• /
• v.4 no.1
• /
• pp.31-71
• /
• 1968

To clarify the breeding behavior of the hybrids between tropical and temperate area rice varieties, investigations were made on heading days and grain sterility. In this study, crosses were made in half way diallel involving 7 varieties: 2 photoperied sensitive Indicas, 2 less sensitive intermediate Indicas, 1 Ponlai Japonica and 2 high temperature sensitive Japonicas. The parents and $F_1$s were grown under 10 hours and 14 hours daylength controlled conditions at both IRRI(International Rice Research Institute, N$14^{\circ}$17') and Suwon(N$37^{\circ}$16'). F2s with their parents were grown at IRRI in the short day season, and at Suwon under natural conditions. Fa lines with their parents were grown at Suwon under natural conditions. Observations were made for heading days and sterility. The results are summarized as follow; 1. Heading days : 1. For the $F_1$s, earliness showed dominance or overdominance to lateness under the 10 hours condition, and dominance or partial dominance under the 14 hours conditions, at both IRRI and Suwon. 2. For the $F_2$s grown at IRRI during the shortday season earliness appeared to be dominant over lateness and segregation was not distinct and continuous. In the early season culture of $F_2$s at Suwon earliness showed partial dominance or was intermediate. In the proper season culture of $F_2$s lateness showed partial dominance or was intermediate. 3. In the combinations between late parental varieties which do not head at Suwon, transgressive segregants bearing effective panicles were obtained. 4. The crosses of parental varieties having long basic vegetative growth duration showed bigger variance in heading days, and significant correlation was found between of parental varieties and the mean coefficient of variance for parental arrays. 5. The means of heading days of F2 populations were significantly correlated with those of $F_1$ or mid-parents. The means of F 8 lines were also highly correlated with the means of $F_2$s, but, the means of $F_3$ lines grown at Suwon and of their parental $F_2$ individual, grown at IRRI were not correlated. 6. A faint heritability was calculated from the regression of $F_3$ lines grown at Suwon on the $F_2$ individuals grown at IRRI for most combinations, especially in the combinations involving shortday sensitive varieties. This implies low efficiency for the selection of heading days of $F_2$ individuals at IRRI to be grown in lines at Suwon. 7. No significant reciprocal effects were measured for $F_1$ and $F_2$ mean heading days. 8. Partitioning the observed photoperiod sensitivity. into two components, parental array mean md the deviation from this array mean, the parental photoperiod sensitivity contributing to the hybrids was measured in terms of general and specific combining ability for photoperiod sensitivity. 9. The photoperiod sensitivity of $F_1$s was higher than that of the parents, and it decreased as the generation progressed in most combinations of tested varieties. 10. The response of heading days to difference of temperature was weaker for $F_1$ hybrids than for the parents. The differences of temperature responses between the longday and shortday treatments were specific for the variety. 2. Sterility : 1. The $F_1$ sterility was specific for the combinations and not correlated to the parental sterility. The sterility of $F_1$s grown under the 10 hours condition was higher than of those grown under 14 hours. These results were the same at both locations, IRRI and Suwon. 2. The high sterile combinations in $F_1$ showed high sterility in $F_2$. The combinations between a high photoperiod sensitive variety and a high temperature sensitive variety showed high sterility and wider variance. 3. The mean sterility of $F_2$s was lower than of $F_1$s and the mean of $F_3$ lines was lower than of $F_2$s. Sterility decreased as the generation progressed, and the differences of $F_3$ sterility of different combinations were not significant. 4. A faint correlation between grain sterility and pollen sterility was observed in $F_2$ populations. 5. No significant reciprocal effects were measured in $F_1$ and $F_2$ sterility. 6. Following Griffing's method, specific combining ability effects were higher than general combining ability effects, especially in the combinations between highly photoperiod sensitive varieties and highly temperature sensitive varieties. 7. No distinct correlations were found between $F_2$ individual sterility grown at IRRI and $F_3$ line sterility grown at Suwon. 8. No distinct correlations were observed between heading days and sterility of $F_2$ individuals.