화엄사 대웅전 목조비로자나삼신 불좌상에 대한 고찰 (A Study on the Wooden Seated Vairocana Tri-kaya Buddha Images in the Daeungjeon Hall of Hwaeomsa Temple)
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- 미술자료
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- 제100권
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- pp.140-170
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- 2021
정유재란을 겪으며 전소(全燒)된 화엄사는 벽암각성(碧巖覺性)(1575~1660)의 주도 아래 재건이 이루어졌다. 대웅전에는 목조비로자나삼신불상이 봉안되었는데, 1634년에 완성하여 1635년에 점안·봉안되었다. 2015년에 석가불상 복장 <시주질>과 노사나불상 대좌 내부 판재(板材)에 적힌 <묵서명>이 조사되고, 2020년에 노사나불상의 복장 <시주질>이 조사되어 비로자나삼신불상의 조성에 참여한 청헌, 응원, 인균을 포함한 열여덟 명의 조각승들이 밝혀졌고 선조(宣祖)의 아들 의창군 이광(李珖)을 비롯한 왕실과 종친, 천명이 넘는 승속(僧俗)의 시주자들이 동참한 대규모 불사였음이 알려졌다. 비로자나삼신불상의 본존은 높이 2.76m의 장육불상으로 당시 불교조각에서 널리 유행하던 장신형의 비례감이 아닌 두부가 크고 어깨가 좁은 고식(古式)의 단구형(短軀形) 비례감을 보인다. 주먹 쥔 왼손을 오른손으로 감싼 비로자나불의 지권인(智拳印)과 보관을 쓴 보살형의 노사나불상은 북송대에 고려로 전해진 전통적인 도상(圖像)이며, 석가불상이 결한 독특한 항마촉지인의 형식은 명(明)에서 전래된 경(經) 변상도에 나타난 도상이 불교조각에 반영된 것으로 생각된다. 화엄사 비로자나삼신불상에서 나타나는 신구(新舊) 양식과 도상의 혼재는 화엄사 불사(佛事)를 맡았던 조각승들이 고려시대 불교조각의 귀족적 전통을 계승한 조선초기 불교미술에서 화엄사 삼신불상의 범본을 구하려했던데서 비롯된 것으로 이해된다. 또한 전란으로 소실된 고려시대 비로자나삼신불상의 원(原) 모습에 가깝게 복원되기를 바라는 화엄사 산중대덕(山中大德)들의 기대가 불상조성에 영향을 주었을 것으로 생각된다. 이와 같은 관점에서 화엄사 삼신불상의 노사나불상은 고려시대 비로자나삼신불상과 도상적으로 연결될 수 있으며 고려시대의 화엄사에 이와 유사한 도상과 양식의 비로자나삼신불상이 봉안되어 있었을 가능성을 상정해 볼 수 있다. 만우 휘헌의 『화엄사지』(1924)에 따르면, 화엄사는 고려 왕실의 축성의례를 거행해온 사찰로 여겨지는데, 이 전통이 조선후기까지 이어져 화엄사 재건 불사에서 새로 조성된 대웅전 비로자나삼신불상 역시 조선왕실의 축성의례를 위한 예배대상이었을 가능성이 크다. 따라서 화엄사 재건에 왕실과 종친이 시주자로 참여한 점도 이와 관련이 있을 것으로 생각된다.
신 두과작물 증산의 중요성에 비추어 동부의 육종상 기초자료를 얻고자, 품종중 특성이 뚜렷한 6개품종을 2면교잡하여 교배친 6개품종과
The wall shear stress in the vicinity of end-to end anastomoses under steady flow conditions was measured using a flush-mounted hot-film anemometer(FMHFA) probe. The experimental measurements were in good agreement with numerical results except in flow with low Reynolds numbers. The wall shear stress increased proximal to the anastomosis in flow from the Penrose tubing (simulating an artery) to the PTFE: graft. In flow from the PTFE graft to the Penrose tubing, low wall shear stress was observed distal to the anastomosis. Abnormal distributions of wall shear stress in the vicinity of the anastomosis, resulting from the compliance mismatch between the graft and the host artery, might be an important factor of ANFH formation and the graft failure. The present study suggests a correlation between regions of the low wall shear stress and the development of anastomotic neointimal fibrous hyperplasia(ANPH) in end-to-end anastomoses. 30523 T00401030523 ^x Air pressure decay(APD) rate and ultrafiltration rate(UFR) tests were performed on new and saline rinsed dialyzers as well as those roused in patients several times. C-DAK 4000 (Cordis Dow) and CF IS-11 (Baxter Travenol) reused dialyzers obtained from the dialysis clinic were used in the present study. The new dialyzers exhibited a relatively flat APD, whereas saline rinsed and reused dialyzers showed considerable amount of decay. C-DAH dialyzers had a larger APD(11.70
수도작에 있어서 수량성의 향상과 경영의 합리화률 기하기 위한 집단재배의 기술체계를 확립하고자 지역과 지대별로 임의선정된 18개소에서 집단재배와 개별재배를 한 수도에 대하여 경종 및 생육ㆍ수량구성요소의 변이를 조사연구하였으며 460개소의 집단재배와 개별재배에 대하여 경종ㆍ경영 및 조직운영등을 비교조사하고 집단재배와 개별재배의 경제성을 분석하여 그 결과를 요약하면 아래와 같다. 1. 집단재배와 개별재배의 경종 및 생육ㆍ수량형질에 관하여 연구한 결과는 다음과 같다. (1) 육묘에 있어서 집단재배가 비료의 3요소 특히 인산과 가리의 사용량이 많았고 약제살포의 횟수도 많았다. (2) 본답에 있어서의 경종기술은 집단재배가 개별재배보다
As a part of the epidemiological studies of clonorchiasis, this study was conducted to evaluate the current endemicity and the natural transition of the Clonorchis infection in Gimhae Gun and delta area a high endemic area in Korea in recent years, prior to the introduction of praziquantel which will eventually influence the status of the prevalence. The data obtained in this study in 1983 were evaluated for natural transition of the infection in comparison with those obtained 16 years ago in 1967 by the author(Kim, 1974). The areas of investigation, villages and schools surveyed, methods and techniques used in this study were the same as in 1967, except for the contents of the questionnaire for raw freshwater fish consumption by the local inhabitants. 1) The prevalence rate of clonorchiasis in the general population of the villages was 48.1% on the average out of a total of 484 persons examined. The average of those of the riverside-delta area was 65.2% and 43.0% in the inland area. Among the schoolchildren, the prevalence rate was 8.2% on the average out of a total of 1,423 examined. By area, the prevalence rate was 10.8% in the riverside delta area and 2.8% in the inland area. By sex, difference in the prevalence was seen only in the inhabitants of the inland area showing 52.4% in the male and 33.5% in the female. 2) In the natural transition of the infection, the prevalence rate among the inhabitants has decreased from 68.8% in 1967 to 48.1% in 1983, and in the schoolchildren from 56.4% in 1967 to 8.2% in 1983. The reduction rate was higher in the riverside-delta area than in the inland area. 3) In the prevalence rate by age, 11.9% was first seen in the 5-9 age group and the rate gradually increased up to 75.0% in the 50-59 age group. By sex, the rate was higher in the male than in the female in the 20-29 age group and over. 4) In the natural transition of the prevalence rate by age, the reduction rate of the infection during the past 16 years was greater in the younger age groups up to the 40-49 age group and reached the same level in the age group 50-59. Reduction was seen again in the age group over 60s. By sex, the reduction rate was greater in the female than in the male in the 20-29 age group and over. By area, the reduction rate was greater in the riverside delta area than in the inland area, particularly in the young age groups. 5) In the intensity of the infection among the cases, the mean egg out-put per mg feces per infected cases(EPmg) in the inhabitants was 6.3. EPmg of those of the river-side-delta area was 15.4 and that of the in-land was 2.8. On the other hand, in the schoolchildren, EPmg was 3.2, and no difference was seen between the two areas, the river-side-delta area and the inland area. 6) In the transition of the intensity of the infection by area, EPmg among the inhabitants inexplically increased from 7.8 in 1967 to 15.4 in 1983. This was probably caused by uneven specimen collection in the process of sampling the population. EPmg of the inhabitants in the inland area and those of the schoolchildren of both riverside delta and inland areas showed a similar decrease in the past 16 years. 7) The intensity of the infection by age showed a relatively low level in the 20-29 age group and below, and EPmg 5.1-9.5 was seen in the 30-39 age group and over. Sex, Epmg was 5.8 in the male and 4.7 the female. By in 8) In the transition of the intensity of the infection, EPmg decreased from 6.2 in 1967 to 5.4 in 1983. By age, in contrast to the figures of 1967 in which EPmg gradually increased with some fluctuation from 1.1 in the 0-4 age group to peak 10.5 in the 50-59 age group, in 1983 lower intensity of the infection was seen in the age group from 10-14 to 20-29 with the EPmg range of 0.6-2.7. 9) In the distribution of the clonorchiasis cases by the range of EPmg value, 43.2% of the cases were in 0.1 0.9 and 34.6% in 1.0-4.9. As a whole by cumulative percent, 44.6% of them were under 0.9 as light infection and 86.1% of them under 9.9 up to moderate infection. By sex, no difference was seen in Epmg. 10) In the transition of the distribution by the range of Epmg, the cases were distributed up to the range 80.0-99.9 in 1967 and to 60.0-79.9 in 1983. By cumulative percent, in the range of 0.1-0.9 and less, light infection, 34.3% of them were distributed in 1967 and 44.6% in 1983 with about 10% increase. In the range of 5.0-9.9 and less, up to moderate infection, 83.2% in 1967 and 86.1% in 1983 of the cases were seen, respectively. 11) The practice of raw freshwater fish consumption among the inhabitants seems to have decreased in recent years. Those who admitted to raw freshwater fish consumption in the last two years among the infected inhabitants were 59.3%, although 86.8% of them professed to have experience with raw freshwater fish consumption. 31.7% of those who have had experience of the raw freshwater fish consumption denied any further consumption in recent years. From an interview of 543 school-children, 24.1% of them admitted to an experience of raw freshwater fish consumption. However, those who have practised in the past two years comprized 17.9%. Those who denied raw freshwater fish consumption in recent years among those who had such experience were 26.0% out of 131 interviewed. The rate of raw freshwater fish consumption in both inhabitants and schoolchildren were higher in the male than in the female. On the contrary, the rate of those who did not practise in recent years among those who had experience of raw freshwater fish consumption was higher in the female than in the male. 12) The major reason for the reduction of raw freshwater fish consumption among the local inhabitants was the risk of the fluke infection. However, it has become apparent that such change of taste has resulted from water pollution impact which has affected throughout the areas of the freshwater systems in this locality since last several years. 13) In animal survey, Clonorchis infection was seen in 14.8% of 88 dogs examined and 3.7% of 27 house rats examined. It was noted that populations of dogs and cats have increased in the villages surveyed. Although the prevalence rate was lower in the present survey than those of 1967, the significance of the animals as the reservoir host has not changed. 14) Prevalence rate of Clonorchis infection by cercariae in the first intermediate host, Parafossarulus manchouricus, was 0.6% out of 517 snails examined. The infection rate was lower in comparison with 2.3% out of 2,124 examined in 1967. Moreover, sharp decreases in number and distribution of the intermediate host snails in many watershed areas of the huge freshwater systems in this locality seemed to reduce transmission of Clonorchis in connection with the intermediate host stage of its life cycle. 15) Clonorchis infection in the second intermediate fish hosts was relatively low. The mean number of Clonorchis metacercaria per fish in Pseudorasbora parva was 517 in 1983, whereas it was 1943 in 1968 through 1969. Environmental water pollution has also caused the decreased fish population density in these areas, and this has also apparently affected to the practice of raw freshwater fish consumption among the local inhabitants. 16) In conclusion, endemicity of Clonorchis infection in Gimhae Gum and delta area of the Nagdong River has sharply decreased during the past 16 years. The major cause of the regressive transition of the infection was the water pollution of the land water systems of this locality. The pollution has upset the ecosystems comprizing of the intermediate hosts of Clonorchis in many areas, and also affected to a significant extent to the discontinuance of the local inhabitants for raw freshwater fish consumption.
토양정밀조사결과 우리나라에서 밝혀진 235 개(個)의 토양통에 대하여 분류체계를 확립(確立)코저 미국(美國)의 신토양분류법에 준(準)하였는바 60개(個)의 아군으로 구분할 수 있었다. 그러나 수도재배기간중(水稻栽培期間中) 담수상태(湛水狀態)를 유지(維持)하게되는 답토양들은 신분류법(新分類法)에 분류기준(分類基準)이 확립(確立)되어 있지않아 토양형태적특성에 입각(立脚)하여 분류(分類)코저 할때 무리(無理)가 있음을 알 수 있었다. 답토양의 분류상(分類上) 문제시(問題視)된 것은 토양아군의 수준(水準)에서 18개(個)였으며 이들 새로운 아군에 대하여 분류기준(分類基準)을 설정(設定)(Setup)하였는 바 그 분류시안(分類試案)의 내용(內容)을 요약(要略)하면 다음과 같다. Anthro aquic, Aquic Udipsamments; 관개수(灌漑水)의 영향(影響)을 받아 표토(表土)로 부터 50cm이상(以上) 회색화작용(灰色化作用)을 받은 사질계충적토(砂窒系沖積土)이며 사두(沙頭)및 김천통등(金川統等)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Anthroaquic Udipsamments; 관개수(灌漑水)의 영향(影響)을 받아 표토(表土)로 부터 50cm 이내(以內)에서 회색화작용(灰色化作用)을 받은 사질계충적토(砂窒系沖積土)로 백수통(白岫統)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Halic Psammaquents; 개답년대(開畓年代)가 오래되지 않은 간척지의 염해답으로 낙천통이 이에 속(屬)한다. Anthroaquic, Aquic Udifluvents; 관개수(灌漑水)의 영향(影響)을 받아 표토(表土)에서 50cm이상(以上) 회색화작용(灰色化作用)을 받은 사양질 및 식양질계 충적토로 마영통(馬嶺統)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Anthroaquic Udifluvents: 관개수(灌漑水)의 영향(影響)을 받아 표토(表土)로부터 50cm이내(以內)에서 회색화작용(灰色化作用)을 받은 사양질 및 식양질계 충적토로 행곡통(杏谷統)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Fluventic Haplaquepts: 지하수위(地下水位)가 높아 토양은 전층이 회색화(灰色化)된 습답으로 유기물(有機物)의 함량(含量)은 토심(土深)이 깊어짐에 따라 불규칙적(不規則的)으로 감소(減少)되는 회색토(灰色土)로 백구 및 학성통등(鶴城統等)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Fuventic Thapto-Histic Haplaquepts: Fluventic Haplaquepts와 유사(類似)하나 토양단면내에 유기물층이 개재된 습답으로 공덕(孔德) 및 서탄통(西炭統)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Fluventlc Aeric Haplaquepts: Fluventic Haplaquepts보다 지하수위(地下水位)가 비교적(比較的) 낮으므로 토양배수가 약간 불량(不良)한 회색토(灰色土)로 만경(萬頃) 및 전북통등(全北統等)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Fluventic Thapto-Histic Aeric Hapldquepts: Fluventic Thapto-Histic Haplaquepts보다 지하수위(地下水位)가 비교적(比較的) 낮으므로 토양배수가 약간 불량(不良)한 회색토(灰色土)로 봉남통(鳳南統)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Fluventic Aeric Sulfic Haplaquepts: Fluventic Aeric Haplaquepts에 비(比)하여 토심(土深) 50~150cm 사이에 황색반문(黃色斑紋)(PH<4.0)인 유화물집적층이 있는 회색토(灰色土)로 등구통이 이에 속(屬)한다. Fluventic Sulfaquepts: 이들 토양은 주(主)로 강하류(江下流)에서 바다로 유입(流入)되는 지점(地点) 및 간석 소택지에 분포(分布)되며 표토(表土)에서 50cm이내(以內)에 유화물집적층이 있는 습답으로 봉림(鳳林) 및 해척통(海拓統)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Fluventic Aeric Sulfaquepts: Fluventic Sulfaquepts 보다 지하수위(地下水位)가 비교적(比較的) 깊으므로 토양 배수(排水)가 약간 불량(不良)한 회색토(灰色土)로 김해통(金海統)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Anthro aquic Fluvaquentic Eutrochrepts: 관개수(漑水)의 영향(影響)을 받아 표토(表土)로 부터 50cm이상(以上) 회색화(灰色化)되고 염기포화도가 높은(>60%) 토양이며 장유(長有) 및 칠곡통등(漆谷統等)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Anthro aquic Dystric Fluventic Eutrochrepts: Anthro aquic Fluvaquentic Eutrochrepts와 유사(類似)하나 회색화작용(灰色化作用)은 표토(表土)로부터 50cm이내(以內)에서만 나타나는 토양이며 월곡(月谷) 및 경산통등(慶山統等)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Anthro aquic Fluventic Dystrochrepts; Anthro aquic Dystric Fluventic Eutrochrepts에 비(比)하여 염기포화도가 낮은(<60%) 토양으로 고천(高川) 및 비곡통등(秘谷統等)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Anthre aquic Eutrandepts; 염기포화도가 높은 (>50%) 화산회토(火山灰土)로 대정통(大靜統)이 이에 속(屬)한다. Anthre aquic Hapludalfs; 관개수(灌漑水)의 영향(影響)을 받아 표토(表土)로부터 50cm 이내(以內)에서 회색화작용(灰色化作用)을 받은 적황색토(赤黃色土)로 화동(華東) 및 용수통등이 이에 속(屬)한다. Anthro aquic Aquic Hapludalfs; Anthro aquic Hapludalfs에 비(比)하여 회색화작용(灰色化作用)을 더 받은(표토(表土)에서 50cm이상(以上)) 적황색토(赤黃色土)로 덕평(德坪) 및 극락통등이 이에 속(屬)한다.
The success of the family planning program in Korea is reflected in the decrease in the growth rate from 3.0% in 1962 to 2.0% in 1971, and in the decrease in the fertility rate from 43/1,000 in 1960 to 29/1,000 in 1970. However, it would be erroneous to attribute these reductions entirely to the family planning program. Other socio-economic factors, such as the increasing age at marriage and the increasing use of induced abortions, definitely had an impact on the lowered growth and fertility rate. Despite the relative success of the program to data in meeting its goals, there is no room for complacency. Meeting the goal of a further reduction in the population growth rate to 1.3% by 1981 is a much more difficult task than any one faced in the past. Not only must fertility be lowered further, but the size of the target population itself will expand tremendously in the late seventies; due to the post-war baby boom of the 1950's reaching reproductive ages. Furthermore, it is doubtful that the age at marriage will continue to rise as in the past or that the incidence of induced abortion will continue to increase. Consequently, future reductions in fertility will be more dependent on the performance of the national family planning program, with less assistance from these non-program factors. This paper will describe various approaches to help to the solution of these current problems. 1. PRACTICE RATE IN FAMILY PLANNING In 1973, the attitude (approval) and knowledge rates were quite high; 94% and 98% respectively. But a large gap exists between that and the actual practice rate, which is only 3695. Two factors must be considered in attempting to close the KAP-gap. The first is to change social norms, which still favor a larger family, increasing the practice rate cannot be done very quickly. The second point to consider is that the family planning program has not yet reached all the eligible women. A 1973 study determineded that a large portion, 3096 in fact, of all eligible women do not want more children, but are not practicing family planning. Thus, future efforts to help close the KAP-gap must focus attention and services on this important large group of potential acceptors. 2. CONTINUATION RATES Dissatisfaction with the loop and pill has resulted in high discontinuation rates. For example, a 1973 survey revealed that within the first six months initial loop acceptance. nearly 50% were dropouts, and that within the first four months of inital pill acceptance. nearly 50% were dropouts. These discontinuation rates have risen over the past few years. The high rate of discontinuance obviously decreases the contraceptive effectiveness. and has resulted in many unwanted births which is directly related to the increase of induced abortions. In the future, the family planning program must emphasize the improved quality of initial and follow-up services. rather than more quantity, in order to insure higher continuation rates and thus more effective contraceptive protection. 3. INDUCED ABORTION As noted earlier. the use of induced abortions has been increase yearly. For example, in 1960, the average number of abortions was 0.6 abortions per women in the 15-44 age range. By 1970. that had increased to 2 abortions per women. In 1966. 13% of all women between 15-44 had experienced at least one abortion. By 1971, that figure jumped to 28%. In 1973 alone, the total number of abortions was 400,000. Besides the ever incre.sing number of induced abortions, another change has that those who use abortions have shifted since 1965 to include- not. only the middle class, but also rural and low-income women. In the future. in response to the demand for abortion services among rural and low-income w~men, the government must provide and support abortion services for these women as a part of the national family planning program. 4. TARGET SYSTIi:M Since 1962, the nationwide target system has been used to set a target for each method, and the target number of acceptors is then apportioned out to various sub-areas according to the number of eligible couples in each area. Because these targets are set without consideration for demographic factors, particular tastes, prejudices, and previous patterns of acceptance in the area, a high discontinuation rate for all methods and a high wastage rate for the oral pill and condom results. In the future. to alleviate these problems of the methodbased target system. an alternative. such as the weighted-credit system, should be adopted on a nation wide basis. In this system. each contraceptive method is. assigned a specific number of points based upon the couple-years of protection (CYP) provided by the method. and no specific targets for each method are given. 5. INCREASE OF STERILIZA.TION TARGET Two special projects. the hospital-based family planning program and the armed forces program, has greatly contributed to the increasing acceptance in female and male sterilization respectively. From January-September 1974, 28,773 sterilizations were performed. During the same time in 1975, 46,894 were performed; a 63% increase. If this trend continues, by the end of 1975. approximately 70,000 sterilizations will have been performed. Sterilization is a much better method than both the loop and pill, in terms of more effective contraceptive protection and the almost zero dropout rate. In the future, the. family planning program should continue to stress the special programs which make more sterilizations possible. In particular, it should seek to add the laparoscope techniques to facilitate female sterilization acceptance rates. 6. INCREASE NUMBER OF PRIVATE ACCEPTORS Among the current family planning users, approximately 1/3 are in the private sector and thus do not- require government subsidy. The number of private acceptors increases with increasing urbanization and economic growth. To speed this process, the government initiated the special hospital based family planning program which is utilized mostly by the private sector. However, in the future, to further hasten the increase of private acceptors, the government should encourage doctors in private practice to provide family planning services, and provide the contraceptive supplies. This way, those do utilize the private medical system will also be able to receive family planning services and pay for it. Another means of increasing the number of private acceptors, IS to greatly expand the commercial outlets for pills and condoms beyond the existing service points of drugstores, hospitals, and health centers. 7. IE&C PROGRAM The current preferred family size is nearly twice as high as needed to achieve a stable poplation. Also, a strong boy preference hinders a small family size as nearly all couples fuel they must have at least one or more sons. The IE&C program must, in the future, strive to emphasize the values of the small family and equality of the sexes. A second problem for the IE&C program to work. with in the: future is the large group of people who approves family planning, want no more children, but do not practice. The IE&C program must work to motivate these people to accept family planning And finally, for those who already practice, an IE&C program in the future must stress continuation of use. The IE&C campaign, to insure highest effectiveness, should be based on a detailed factor analysis of contraceptive discontinuance. In conclusion, Korea faces a serious unfavorable sociodemographic situation- in the future unless the population growth rate can be curtailed. And in the future, the decrease in fertility will depend solely on the family planning program, as the effect of other socio-economic factors has already been maximumally felt. A second serious factor to consider is the increasing number of eligible women due to the 1950's baby boom. Thus, to meet these challenges, the program target must be increased and the program must improve the effectiveness of its current activities and develop new programs.
7.1 옛날부터 재목(材木)을 오래 불에 담그어 쓰면 덜트로 덜 휜다고 하였는데 말로서 전(傳)하여 왔을 뿐 그 연구결과(硏究結果)나 또는 그 원인(原因)에 대한 것은 분명(分明)치 못하였다. 한편 재목(材木)의 추출성분(抽出成分)이 그 재목(材木)의 물리적(物理的) 성질(性質)에 영향(影響)할 것이라는 추측(推測)은 많었으나 실지로 그 영향(影響)에 대한 연구(硏究)를 하여 그 결과(結果)와 그 원인(原因)을 밝힌 것도 극(極)히 적었다. 이 연구(硏究)는 이와같은 입장(立場)에 놓여있는 그 간미지(間未知)한 점(点)을 밝히기 위(爲)하여 다시말하면 재목(材木)을 물에 담그어 그 수용성(水溶性) 추출물(抽出物)을 추출(抽出)하므로써 일어나는 물리적(物理的) 성질(性質)에 대한 결과(結果)를 조사(調査)하고 이 결과(結果)를 통(通)하여 얻는 진리(眞理)를 응용(應用)하여 재목(材木)의 일대 흠점(欠点)인 수축(收縮), 팽창(膨脹) 이에따라 일어나는 트는것, 휘는것, 틀어지는 것 등(等)을 막아 재목이용(材木利用)의 합리화(合理化)를 기(期)할 목적(目的)으로써 시작(始作)된 것이며 Yale 재과대학(材科大學) 목재이용학(木材利用學) 연구실(硏究室)에서 담당교수 F.F.Wangaard 박사(博士) 지도하(指導下)에 재료(材料)는 동(同) 연구실(硏究室)에 준비(準備)되어 있는 북미(北美)산 스트로 - 부 소나무 참나무 그리고 남방열대(南方熱帶)산 하이메나에아의 삼(三) 종류(種類)에 대하여 연구(硏究)되었다. 7.2 연구(硏究)의 대상이 된 물리적(物理的) 성질(性質)은 목재(木材)의 실용적 사용(使用)에 있어서 가장 관계가 깊은 다시 말하면 트고 휘고 틀어지는등(等)의 관계가 깊은 평형함수량(平衡含水量), 수축(收縮), 팽창(膨脹) 그리고 강도(强度)의 지표(紙票)가 되는 비중(比重)등이 있다. 7.3 시험(試驗)은 위에 말한 세 가지 종류(種類)를 가지고 추출처리(抽出處理)를 하여 추출(抽出)한것과 반대로 추출성(抽出性) 물질(物質)은 침투(浸透)시킨것에 대하여 비교(比較)될 무처리(無處理)한 세 다른 공시재(供試在)를 준비(準備)하여 실시되었다. 다음 시험결과(試驗結果)는 7.4 수용성(水溶性) 추출물(抽出物)이 추출량(抽出量)과 그 추출액중(抽出液中)의 성분(成分)그룹은 Table 36에 표시(表示)된것과 같으며 나무 종류(種類)에 따라 추출량(抽出量)에 그리고 각(各) 성분(成分)그룹의 종류(種類)와 그 양(量)에 차이(差異)를 볼수 있었다. 7.5 평형함수량(平衡含水量)에 있어서는 a) 추출처리(抽出處理)를 하여 그 추출성분(抽出成分)이 빠져버린 공시재(供試材)와 그와 반대의 공시재(供試材) 사이에는 확실한 차이(差異)가 있어 추출성분(抽出成分)을 재내(材內)에 포함(包含)하고 있으므로써 같은 관계흡도에서 80%방습시(放濕時)는 이와 반대 평형함수량(平衡含水量)은 많아졌다. b) 설탕액(雪糖液)에 담그어 침투처리(浸透處理)를 하여 당분(糖分)이 재내(材內)에 침입(侵入)된 공시재(供試材)는 대체(大體) 추출처리(抽出處理)를 하지 않은 공시재(供試材)와 거의 같은 경향(傾向)의 결과(結果)를 나타내고 있다. c) 나무의 종류(種類)에 따른 차이(差異)는 일정한 경향(傾向)을 볼 수 없으나 스트로-부 소나무의 심재부(心材部)와 변재부를 비교(比較)하면 심재부(心材部)는 그 평형함수량(平衡含水量)이 적다. 이것은 원래(元來)의 함수량(含水量)에 있어서 심재부(心材部)가 적은데 이와같은 차이(差異)는 식물생리학적(植物生理學的) 또는 그 해부학적(解剖學的) 구조(構造)의 차이(差異)에서 생기는 것이다. 7.6 수축(收縮)에 있어서는 a) 추출처리(抽出處理)를 한 공시재(供試材)의 수축량(收縮量)은 그와 반대로 추출처리(抽出處理)를 않어 추출성분(抽出成分)이 그대로 남어있는 공시재(供試材)에 비교(比較)하여 그 수축량(收縮量)이 모두 크다. b) 설탕액(雪糖液)에 담그어 침투처리(浸透處理)를 한 공시재(供試材)는 그 수축량(收縮量)은 다른것에 비교(比較)하여 제일 적고 모두 침투처리(浸透處理)를 하지않은 공시재(供試材)와 거의 같은 결과(結果)를 보이고 있는데 이것은 재목(材木)을 사용전(使用前)에 특수(特殊)한 침투처리(浸透處理)를 하여 쓰면 재목(材木)의 일대 흠점(欠点)인 수축(收縮)을 막을수 있다는 것을 실증하는 것이다. c) 나무의 종류별(種類別)로보면 스트로-부 소나무의 심재부(心材部)는 그 변재부보다 수축량(收縮量)이 적으며 참나무의 수축량(收縮量)은 제일 크로 스토로-부 소나무에 비교(比較)하여 약(約)2배(倍) Hymenaea는 참나무 보다 적고 스트로 - 부 소나무 보다는 컸다. d) 각(各) 수종(樹種)을 통(通)하여 방향성(方向性)에 따른 수축량(收縮量)을 보면 촉단면방향(觸斷面方向)의 수축량(收縮量)은 경단방향(徑斷方向)의 수축량(收縮量)보다 큰 것은 다른 모든 나무에서 보느 결과(結果)와 같다. e) 추출량(抽出量)과의 관계를 보면 추출량(抽出量)이 많은 것일수록 추출처리(抽出處理)를 않은 것과의 수축량(收縮量)의 차이(差異)는 컸다. 7.7 팽창(膨脹)에 있어서는 a) 추출처리(抽出處理)로 그 성분(成分)을 추출(抽出)하여 낸 공시재(供試材)의 팽창량(膨脹量)은 그와 반대의 것에 비교(比較)하여 모두 팽창량(膨脹量)이 컸다. b) 재목(材木)의 방향성(方向性)에 따라보면 모두 촉단(觸斷) 방향(方向)의 팽창량(膨脹量)은 경단방향(徑斷方向)의 팽창량(膨脹量)에 비(比)하여 크다. c) 수축(收縮)에서 본것과 같이 팽창(膨脹)에 있어서도 나무의 종류(種類)에 따라 그 팽창량(膨脹量)에 차이(差異)를 볼수 있으며 그 팽창량(膨脹量)은 참나무 하이메나에아 스트로-부 소나무의 변재 그리고 동심재(同心材)의 순서(順序)도 적어졌으며, 수축량(收縮量)이 큰 것은 팽창량(膨脹量)에 있어서도 크다는 것을 실증하였다. 7.8 비중(比重)에 있어서는 a) 추출처리(抽出處理)를 한 공시재(供試材)의 비중(比重)이 추출처리(抽出處理)를 않은 공시재(供試材)의 비중(比重)에 비교(比較)하여 컸다. 이것은 비중(比重)을 결정(決定)할 때 사용(使用)된 용적(容積)에 기인(起因)하였으며 사실은 이와 반대의 결과(結果)가 나타나야 할 것이다. b) 나무의 종류별(種類別)로 보면 스트로-부 소나무의 심재(心材)는 변재보다는 그 비중(比重)이 크며 두 참나무의 비중(比重)은 소나무의 그것보다 배(倍)나 크고 하이메나에아는 그 비중(比重)이 제일 컷다. (9) 이상(以上) ; 모-든 시험결과(試驗結果)를 종합(綜合)하여 생각할 때 막연(漠然)히 재목(材木)을 물에 오래 담그어 쓴다는 생각은 오히려 잘못하면 목재(木材)의 성질(性質)을 더욱 악화(惡化)시킬 우려(憂慮)가 있으며 물에 담그어 쓰되 설탕질등(雪糖質等)으로 재목내부(材木內部)에 침투(浸透)할 수 있는 성질(性質)의 성분(成分)이 용해(溶解)되어 있는 액중(液中)에 담그어 쓰는 것은 재목(材木)의 일대 흠점(欠点)인 수축(收縮)과 팽창(膨脹) 그리고 이에 따라 일어나는 트고 휘는 일이며 틀어지는 등(等)의 흠점(欠点)을 막을 수 있다는 것을 실증하게 되었다. 만고(萬苦) 물속에 오래 담그어 쓰는 것이 다시 말하면 수용성(水溶性) 추출물(抽出物)을 빼내어 쓰는 것이 그 결과(結果)에 있어 확실히 양호(良好)하였다는 사실이 있었다면 그것은 수용성성분(水溶性成分)을 제출(提出)함으로써 균일(均一)한 수축(收縮)과 팽창(膨脹)이 일어나는데 기인(起因)하였을 것이다.
Just before the Korean War, the total number of the North Korean troops was 198,380, while that of the ROK(Republic of Korea) army troops 105,752. That is, the total number of the ROK army troops at that time was 53.3% of the total number of the North Korean army. As of December 2008, the total number of the North Korean troops is estimated to be 1,190,000, while that of the ROK troops is 655,000, so the ROK army maintains 55.04% of the total number of the North Korean troops. If the ROK army continues to reduce its troops according to [Military Reform Plan 2020], the total number of its troops will be 517,000 m 2020. If North Korea maintains the current status(l,190,000 troops), the number of the ROK troops will be 43.4% of the North Korean army. In terms of units, just before the Korean War, the number of the ROK army divisions and regiments was 80% and 44.8% of North Korean army. As of December 2008, North Korea maintains 86 divisions and 69 regiments. Compared to the North Korean army, the ROK army maintains 46 Divisions (53.4% of North Korean army) and 15 regiments (21.3% of North Korean army). If the ROK army continue to reduce the military units according to [Military Reform Plan 2020], the number of ROK army divisions will be 28(13 Active Division, 4 Mobilization Divisions and 11 Local Reserve Divisions), while that of the North Korean army will be 86 in 2020. In that case, the number of divisions of the ROK army will be 32.5% of North Korean army. During the Korean war, North Korea suddenly invaded the Republic of Korea and occupied its capital 3 days after the war began. At that time, the ROK army maintained 80% of army divisions, compared to the North Korean army. The lesson to be learned from this is that, if the ROK army is forced to disperse its divisions because of the simultaneous invasion of North Korea and attack of guerrillas in home front areas, the Republic of Korea can be in a serious military danger, even though it maintains 80% of military divisions of North Korea. If the ROK army promotes the plans in [Military Reform Plan 2020], the number of military units of the ROK army will be 32.5% of that of the North Korean army. This ratio is 2.4 times lower than that of the time when the Korean war began, and in this case, 90% of total military power should be placed in the DMZ area. If 90% of military power is placed in the DMZ area, few troops will be left for the defense of home front. In addition, if the ROK army continues to reduce the troops, it can allow North Korea to have asymmetrical superiority in military force and it will eventually exert negative influence on the stability and peace of the Korean peninsular. On the other hand, it should be reminded that, during the Korean War, the Republic of Korea was attacked by North Korea, though it kept 53.3% of troops, compared to North Korea. It should also be reminded that, as of 2008, the ROK army is defending its territory with the troops 55.04% of North Korea. Moreover, the national defense is assisted by 25,120 troops of the US Forces in Korea. In case the total number of the ROK troops falls below 43.4% of the North Korean army, it may cause social unrest about the national security and may lead North Korea's misjudgement. Besides, according to Lanchester strategy, the party with weaker military power (60% compared to the party with stronger military power) has the 4.1% of winning possibility. Therefore, if we consider the fact that the total number of the ROK army troops is 55.04% of that of the North Korean army, the winning possibility of the ROK army is not higher than 4.1%. If the total number of ROK troops is reduced to 43.4% of that of North Korea, the winning possibility will be lower and the military operations will be in critically difficult situation. [Military Reform Plan 2020] rums at the reduction of troops and units of the ground forces under the policy of 'select few'. However, the problem is that the financial support to achieve this goal is not secured. Therefore, the promotion of [Military Reform Plan 2020] may cause the weakening of military defence power in 2020. Some advanced countries such as Japan, UK, Germany, and France have promoted the policy of 'select few'. However, what is to be noted is that the national security situation of those countries is much different from that of Korea. With the collapse of the Soviet Unions and European communist countries, the military threat of those European advanced countries has almost disappeared. In addition, the threats those advanced countries are facing are not wars in national level, but terrorism in international level. To cope with the threats like terrorism, large scaled army trops would not be necessary. So those advanced European countries can promote the policy of 'select few'. In line with this, those European countries put their focuses on the development of military sections that deal with non-military operations and protection from unspecified enemies. That is, those countries are promoting the policy of 'select few', because they found that the policy is suitable for their national security environment. Moreover, since they are pursuing common interest under the European Union(EU) and they can form an allied force under NATO, it is natural that they are pursing the 'select few' policy. At present, NATO maintains the larger number of troops(2,446,000) than Russia(l,027,000) to prepare for the potential threat of Russia. The situation of japan is also much different from that of Korea. As a country composed of islands, its prime military focus is put on the maritime defense. Accordingly, the development of ground force is given secondary focus. The japanese government promotes the policy to develop technology-concentrated small size navy and air-forces, instead of maintaining large-scaled ground force. In addition, because of the 'Peace Constitution' that was enacted just after the end of World War II, japan cannot maintain troops more than 240,000. With the limited number of troops (240,000), japan has no choice but to promote the policy of 'select few'. However, the situation of Korea is much different from the situations of those countries. The Republic of Korea is facing the threat of the North Korean Army that aims at keeping a large-scale military force. In addition, the countries surrounding Korea are also super powers containing strong military forces. Therefore, to cope with the actual threat of present and unspecified threat of future, the importance of maintaining a carefully calculated large-scale military force cannot be denied. Furthermore, when considering the fact that Korea is in a peninsular, the Republic of Korea must take it into consideration the tradition of continental countries' to maintain large-scale military powers. Since the Korean War, the ROK army has developed the technology-force combined military system, maintaining proper number of troops and units and pursuing 'select few' policy at the same time. This has been promoted with the consideration of military situation in the Koran peninsular and the cooperation of ROK-US combined forces. This kind of unique military system that cannot be found in other countries can be said to be an insightful one for the preparation for the actual threat of North Korea and the conflicts between continental countries and maritime countries. In addition, this kind of technology-force combined military system has enabled us to keep peace in Korea. Therefore, it would be desirable to maintain this technology-force combined military system until the reunification of the Korean peninsular. Furthermore, it is to be pointed out that blindly following the 'select few' policy of advanced countries is not a good option, because it is ignoring the military strategic situation of the Korean peninsular. If the Republic of Korea pursues the reduction of troops and units radically without consideration of the threat of North Korea and surrounding countries, it could be a significant strategic mistake. In addition, the ROK army should keep an eye on the fact the European advanced countries and Japan that are not facing direct military threats are spending more defense expenditures than Korea. If the ROK army reduces military power without proper alternatives, it would exert a negative effect on the stable economic development of Korea and peaceful reunification of the Korean peninsular. Therefore, the desirable option would be to focus on the development of quality of forces, maintaining proper size and number of troops and units under the technology-force combined military system. The tableau above shows that the advanced countries like the UK, Germany, Italy, and Austria spend more defense expenditure per person than the Republic of Korea, although they do not face actual military threats, and that they keep achieving better economic progress than the countries that spend less defense expenditure. Therefore, it would be necessary to adopt the merits of the defense systems of those advanced countries. As we have examined, it would be desirable to maintain the current size and number of troops and units, to promote 'select few' policy with increased defense expenditure, and to strengthen the technology-force combined military system. On the basis of firm national security, the Republic of Korea can develop efficient policies for reunification and prosperity, and jump into the status of advanced countries. Therefore, the plans to reduce troops and units in [Military Reform Plan 2020] should be reexamined. If it is difficult for the ROK army to maintain its size of 655,000 troops because of low birth rate, the plans to establish the prompt mobilization force or to adopt drafting system should be considered for the maintenance of proper number of troops and units. From now on, the Republic of Korean government should develop plans to keep peace as well as to prepare unexpected changes in the Korean peninsular. For the achievement of these missions, some options can be considered. The first one is to maintain the same size of military troops and units as North Korea. The second one is to maintain the same level of military power as North Korea in terms of military force index. The third one is to maintain the same level of military power as North Korea, with the combination of the prompt mobilization force and the troops in active service under the system of technology-force combined military system. At present, it would be not possible for the ROK army to maintain such a large-size military force as North Korea (1,190,000 troops and 86 units). So it would be rational to maintain almost the same level of military force as North Korea with the combination of the troops on the active list and the prompt mobilization forces. In other words, with the combination of the troops in active service (60%) and the prompt mobilization force (40%), the ROK army should develop the strategies to harmonize technology and forces. The Korean government should also be prepared for the strategic flexibility of USFK, the possibility of American policy change about the location of foreign army, radical unexpected changes in North Korea, the emergence of potential threat, surrounding countries' demand for Korean force for the maintenance of regional stability, and demand for international cooperation against terrorism. For this, it is necessary to develop new approaches toward the proper number and size of troops and units. For instance, to prepare for radical unexpected political or military changes in North Korea, the Republic of Korea should have plans to protect a large number of refugees, to control arms and people, to maintain social security, and to keep orders in North Korea. From the experiences of other countries, it is estimated that 115,000 to 230,000 troops, plus ten thousands of police are required to stabilize the North Korean society, in the case radical unexpected military or political change happens in North Korea. In addition, if the Republic of Korea should perform the release of hostages, control of mass destruction weapons, and suppress the internal wars in North Korea, it should send 460,000 troops to North Korea. Moreover, if the Republic of Korea wants to stop the attack of North Korea and flow of refugees in DMZ area, at least 600,000 troops would be required. In sum, even if the ROK army maintains 600,000 troops, it may need additional 460,000 troops to prepare for unexpected radical changes in North Korea. For this, it is necessary to establish the prompt mobilization force whose size and number are almost the same as the troops in active service. In case the ROK army keeps 650,000 troops, the proper number of the prompt mobilization force would be 460,000 to 500,000.