• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.17 no.11
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• pp.1615-1634
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• 2004

A review was undertaken to obtain information on the sustainability of pig free-range production systems including the management, performance and health of pigs in the system. Modern outdoor rearing systems requires simple portable and flexible housing with low cost fencing. Local pig breeds and outdoor-adapted breeds for certain environment are generally more suitable for free-range systems. Free-range farms should be located in a low rainfall area and paddocks should be relatively flat, with light topsoil overlying free-draining subsoil with the absence of sharp stones that can cause foot damage. Huts or shelters are crucial for protecting pigs from direct sun burn and heat stress, especially when shade from trees and other facilities is not available. Pigs commonly graze on strip pastures and are rotated between paddocks. The zones of thermal comfort for the sow and piglet differ markedly; between 12-22$^{\circ}C$ for the sow and 30-37$^{\circ}C$ for piglets. Offering wallows for free-range pigs meets their behavioural requirements, and also overcomes the effects of high ambient temperatures on feed intake. Pigs can increase their evaporative heat loss via an increase in the proportion of wet skin by using a wallow, or through water drips and spray. Mud from wallows can also coat the skin of pigs, preventing sunburn. Under grazing conditions, it is difficult to control the fibre intake of pigs although a high energy, low fibre diet can be used. In some countries outdoor sows are fitted with nose rings to prevent them from uprooting the grass. This reduces nutrient leaching of the land due to less rooting. In general, free-range pigs have a higher mortality compared to intensively housed pigs. Many factors can contribute to the death of the piglet including crushing, disease, heat stress and poor nutrition. With successful management, free-range pigs can have similar production to door pigs, although the growth rate of the litters is affected by season. Piglets grow quicker indoors during the cold season compared to outdoor systems. Pigs reared outdoors show calmer behaviour. Aggressive interactions during feeding are lower compared to indoor pigs while outdoor sows are more active than indoor sows. Outdoor pigs have a higher parasite burden, which increases the nutrient requirement for maintenance and reduces their feed utilization efficiency. Parasite infections in free-range pigs also risks the image of free-range pork as a clean and safe product. Diseases can be controlled to a certain degree by grazing management. Frequent rotation is required although most farmers are keeping their pigs for a longer period before rotating. The concept of using pasture species to minimise nematode infections in grazing pigs looks promising. Plants that can be grown locally and used as part of the normal feeding regime are most likely to be acceptable to farmers, particularly organic farmers. However, one of the key concerns from the public for free-range pig production system is the impact on the environment. In the past, the pigs were held in the same paddock at a high stocking rate, which resulted in damage to the vegetation, nutrient loading in the soil, nitrate leaching and gas emission. To avoid this, outdoor pigs should be integrated in the cropping pasture system, the stock should be mobile and stocking rate related to the amount of feed given to the animals.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.52 no.4
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• pp.56-77
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• 2019

Bi-Seok is a treasure trove of funeral rites and an important cultural asset that can shed light on the historical and social history of calligraphy, but research of the topic is still insignificant. In particular, research on the production method of Bi-Seok remains an unproven field. The production of Bi-Seok can be roughly divided into ma-jeong (refining stone), sculpture, and the Buk-chil (process of engraving letters) process. This article reveals some facts: First, performing ma-jeong to the Sang-Seok, Honyu-Seok, Bi-seok, which are known to be God's things. This process is needed because of the change in the perception of the Honyu-Seok due to the settlement and propagation of Confucian ceremonial rituals in the times of hardship in 1592 and 1636. As the crafting process of ma-jeong did not remain concrete, it was only possible to examine the manufacturing process of Bi-Seok through its materials and tools. Second, the rapid proliferation of Oh-Seok and Sa-jeo-chwi-yong (purchase of things made by private citizens) in the Yeongjo era has great importance in social and cultural history. When the Gang-Hwa-Seok of the commodity were exhausted, the Oh-Seok that was used by Sadebu (upper civil class) were used in the tomb of Jangneung, which made Oh-Seok popular among people. In particular, the use of Oh-Seok and the Ma-Jeong process could minimize chemical and physical damage. Third, the writing method of the Bi-seok is Buk-chil. After Buk-Chil of Song Si-Yeol was used on King Hyojong's tomb, the Buk-Chil process ( printing the letters on the back of the stone and rubbing them to make letters) became the most popular method in Korea and among other East Asian countries, and the fact that it was institutionalized to this scale was quite impressive. Buk-Chil became more sophisticated by using red ink rather than black ink due to the black color that results from Oh-Seok. Fourth, the writing method changes in the late Joseon Dynasty. Until the time of Yeongjo's regime, when inscribing, the depth of the angle was based on the thickness of the stroke, thus representing the shade. This technique, of course, did not occur at every Pyo-Seok or Shindobi, but was maintained by outstanding artisans belonging to government agencies. Therefore, in order to manufacture Bi-Seok, Suk-seok, YeonJeong, Ma-jeong, Jeong-Gan, ChodoSeoIp, Jung-Cho, Ip-gak, Gyo-Jeong, and Jang-Hwang, a process was needed to make one final product. Although all of these methods serve the same purpose of paying respects and propagandizing the great work of deceased persons, through this analysis, it was possible to see the whole process of Pyo-Seok based upon the division of techniques and the collaboration of the craftsmen.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.85 no.1
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• pp.107-119
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• 1996

To understand vegetation changes along environmental gradients in the natural forests in the east side of the Cascade Range in Washington state, USA, line transects were used to sample six different forest environments in the Wenatchee National Forest in the north-facing and south-facing sites at 975, 1280 and 1700m elevation. Data were analyzed using ordination by detranded correspondence analysis. Pseudotsuga menziesii was found as one of the dominant species on all the six sites regardless of elevation or aspect, while Pinus ponderosa was dominant on south slopes only. Abies grandis and A. lasiocarpa were dominant species on north slopes at elevations of 1280 and 1700m, respectively. Moisture, as it related to aspect, was identified as one of the most important environmental gradients for explaining the variation of vegetation types. On north-facing slopes, compared to south-facing slopes, where moisture was not as limiting and canopies could grow denser, probably, elevation or competitive interaction was more important. Species diversity tended to decrease with increasing environmental severity, with south slopes having less diversity than north slopes due to extended water stress and harsher temperature extremes on south slopes. The age structure on north-facing and south-facing slopes was different. Light intensity, moisture and climate were different between these two slopes. Large scale disturbances(e.g., big fire or insects) were major causes in changing age structure. Younger trees showed a closer relationship between size and age than adult trees. DBH values of shade intolerant species in south-facing slope were bigger than those of north-facing slope, which suggested that aspect of stands be the most important factor for age and size.

• Journal of Bio-Environment Control
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• v.20 no.4
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• pp.373-381
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• 2011

This study was carried out to investigate the growth and physiological responses to shading treatment of 1-year-old containerized seedling of Quercus myrsinaefolia. Experimental process was conducted in a facility that consisted of compartments under the lighting control with full sunlight and shading (35%, 55% and 75% of full sunlight). Height and root collar diameter growth were high in the seedlings under both 35% and 55% shading. Regardless of shading level, root collar diameter growth lasted for more than 4 weeks compared to height growth. Highest H/D ratio was observed in the seedlings under 35% shading as 4.31, and the lowest ratio was 3.63 under 75% shading. It was found that seedlings under 55% shading showed highest dry mass production, which was followed in seedlings under 35% shading. In case of leaf dry weight ratio (LWR) after shading treatment, the highest value was 0.53 under 55% shading, and followed in seedlings under 35% shading as 0.52. But root dry weight ratio (RWR) was highest as 0.36 under 75% shading (highest level of shading). In terms of shading treatment, it was found that the higher level of shading had a tendency toward the higher content of chlorophyll a and the higher total chlorophyll content in the leaves of Quercus myrsinaefolia, but there was no significant difference in the content of chlorophyll b depending on the level of shading. It was found that high photosynthesis and transpiration rate were more correlated with high level of shading than full sunlight, but the rates of seedlings had a tendency to be higher under 35% and 55% shading than under 75% shading. The results on growth and physiological responses to different shading levels of 1-year-old containerized seedlings of Quercus myrsinaefolia could be useful in setting up the optimum light intensity for growth, and in estimating the shade tolerance of the species.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.90 no.3
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• pp.380-387
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• 2001

The characteristics of ecological niche, breadth and overlap, for seventeen major tree species were evaluated in the natural deciduous forest in Mt. Chumbong area. Employed by the plot sampling method, the environmental gradient for vertical niche was based on the intensity of light within the forest, and that for horizontal niche was based on multi-dimensional resources in distribution pattern. The result showed that Fraxinus rhynchophylla had the highest value of vertical niche breadth and Maackia amurensis had the lowest, and Acer pseudo-sieboldianum had the highest value of horizontal niche breadth and Betula costata had the lowest. There was no significant correlation between both measures of niche breadth. However, the tolerance index for each species was positively correlated to the values of niche breadth. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were applied to test the correlationship between the species ranks of tolerance index and those of two ecological niche breadths. The coefficient of $r_s=0.432$ ($P{\leq}0.1$) was not enough to support significant correlationship between the tolerance index and vertical niche breadth at the 95% probability. If Carpinus cordata, rarely reach canopy of the forest due to its own growth form, are excluded from the analysis, coefficient was calculated as $r_s=0.650$ ($P{\leq}0.01$), resulting in highly significant correlationship. The Spearman's rank correlation coefficient was $r_s=0.797$ ($P{\leq}0.01$) for tolerance indices and the values of horizontal niche breadth, indicating highly significant. Four distinctive species groups, produced by cluster analysis on the basis of ecological niche overlap for each pair of species, were in considerable accord with the positively associated species constellation pattern created by the inter-species association analysis.