• Journal of Environmental Impact Assessment
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• v.15 no.5
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• pp.323-337
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• 2006

This work discussed the species composition, phylogeny, spatio-temporal distribution, ecology and natural history of North Korean Pinaceae or pine tree family, which seems to be important to maintain nature and ecosystem in the Korean Peninsula. Out of five genera and sixteen species of Pinaceae of the Korean Peninsula, North Korea contains four genera and eleven species of Pinaceae, including Pinus densilflora, P. koraiensis, P. pumila, Picea jezoensis, P. koraiensis, P. koraiensis var. koraiensis, P. pungsanensis, Larix gmelini, L. gmelinii var. olgensis, Abies holophylla and A. nephrolepis. In terms of phylogeny Pinus is closely related to Picea, and followed by Larix. Abies is close to Tsuga which only occur at Ullung Island. Distributional pattern of North Korean Pinaceae can be classified into four types; three species of nation-wide montane type i.e., Pinus densilflora, P. koraiensis and Abies holophylla, four species of central and northern subalpine type, i.e., Pinus pumila, Picea koraiensis, Larix gmelini and Abies nephrolepis, one nation-wide subalpine type, Picea jezoensis, and three species disjunctive to north type, i.e., Picea koraiensis var. koraiensis, P. pungsanensis, and Larix gmelinii var. olgensis. Pinaceae species occurring on the alpine and subalpine belts of North Korea, such as Pinus koraiensis, P. pumila, Picea jezoensis, P. koraiensis, P. koraiensis var. koraiensis, P. pungsanensis, Larix gmelini, L. gmelinii var. olgensis and A. nephrolepis are considered as the glacial descendant from the boreal region. Those species might have migrated from the north during the Pleistocene glacial epochs in search of favourable condition, and since the Holocene period they survived on the hostile alpine and subalpine environments, in which they are more competitive than warmth-tolerant temperate vegetation. Certain species, such as Picea pungsanensis, is segregated on the isolated mountains since the Pleistocene period, and forced to adapt to local environment, and eventually became an endemic species of North Korea. Recent rapid global warming trend especially in northern high mountains of North Korea could cause an unfavourable environment for the survival of cold-tolerant Pinaceae of the alpine and subalpine belts. Pinus densiflora, which is occurring on the montane belt might faced with difficulties due to both the deforestation and the outbreak of insect-borne disease, such as Bursaphelenchus xylophilus.

• Journal of Forest and Environmental Science
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• v.7 no.1
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• pp.1-6
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• 1990

This study was performed to investigate the variation of tracheid length, ray spacing per mm and ray height of major coniferous woods (Picea jezoensis, Abies sachaliensis, Pinus koraiensis, Pinus sylvestris and larix gmelini)grown at Sivelian forest of USSR. The results of the study are as follows: 1. The averaged mean values of tracheid length are respectively $3550{\mu}$ on Pinus koraiensis, $3440{\mu}$ on Abies sachaliensis and Larix gmelini, $2900{\mu}$ on Picea jezoensis, and generally this values of Sivelian coniferous wood are more longer than Korean samewood. 2. The tracheid length on sapwood is more larger than heartwood and this values on latewood are also larger than earlywood. 3. The averaged mean values of ray height are respeetively 14.5 on Larix gmelini, 13.5 on Picea jezoensis and Pinus sylvestris, 9.7 on Pinus koraiensis, and this values of Sivelian coniferous wood are more larger than Korean samewood. 4. Ray height is comparatively small near the pith and tend to be increased to bark of wood. 5. The avereged values of ray spacing per mm are respectily 7.9-8.3 on Larix gmelini and Picea jezoensis, 7.1 on Abies sachaliensis, and 6.1-6.2 on Pinus koraiensis and Pinus sylvestris.

• Journal of the Korean Wood Science and Technology
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• v.24 no.4
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• pp.22-31
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• 1996

Air permeabilities for both sapwood and heartwood of the three softwoods(Picea jezoensis, Larix gmelini, Pinus sylvestris), imported from the Russian Far East, in the three different structural directions were measured using steady-state rotameter method. After measuring permeability, the liquid absorption into the longitudinal permeability specimens was measured, and then related with the measured permeability. The longitudinal permeability was overwhelmingly greater than the transverse permeability, with the radial direction showing higher permeability than the tangential direction. There appear to be species differences in permeability of the three softwoods. The mean longitudinal sapwood permeability of P. jezoensis(3.300darcy) and P. sylvestris(3.028darcy) were considerably greater(ca. 25times) than that of L. gmelini(0.134darcy). Also the average longitudinal heartwood permeability of P. jezoensis(0.300darcy) was about 10 times as great as that of P. sylvestris(0.029darcy) and L. gmelini(0.024darcy). The average calculated radius of pit openings in the heartwood was $0.101{\mu}m$ for L. gmelini, $0.152{\mu}m$ for P. sylvestris for and $0.703{\mu}m$ for P. jezoensis. Heartwood permeability increases with the increase in radius of pit pore and the decrease in ring width and in extractive content, even though the correlation between permeability and its affecting factors was dependent on species. However, there was an inverse relationship between specific gravity and permeability, showing poor correlation between them. The correlation between air permeability and liquid retention was fairly high, so it was revealed that prediction of liquid absorption into the wood by using permeability was feasible.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.99 no.5
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• pp.720-725
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• 2010

On the basis of vegetation data in the 9.12 ha (380 m ${\times}$ 240 m) permanent sample plot of the spruce-fir valley forest in Liangshui National Reserve of Xiaoxing'an Mountains, the study was conducted to evaluate spatial distribution pattern and spatial association by using point pattern analysis for living and dead trees of Larix gmelini by DBH size class. The number of L. gmelini were counted as 59 living stems/ha (6.42 $m^2$/ha of basal area) and 34 dead stems/ha (2.86 $m^2$/ha of basal area). The distributional curve of diameter class exhibited bimodal shape. The analysis of spatial distribution patterns of all living larch stems noted the clumped distribution on the whole. The size of larch aggregates of dead stems was decreased as diameter class was increased. The distribution of dead stems became gradually randomized with decreased clumped size as the scale increased. Living stems and dead stems of the larch had positive spatial association at most of scales, illustrating that the occurrence of mortality of the larch tree was closely related to the distribution pattern of living larch trees.

• Journal of the Korean Wood Science and Technology
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• v.25 no.1
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• pp.28-36
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• 1997

Several thick board and dimension lumbers of Japanese larch(Larix leptolepis), Dahurian larch(Larix gmelini) and radiata pine(Pinus radiata) air-dried in four different seasons to compare air-drying process. Patterns of air-drying curves were influenced by climatological conditions and limber thickness. The initial drying rates of summer were the highest, followed those of fall, spring and winter. The drying times to equilibrium moisture contents for four seasons were nearly the same except for winter. However, the drying time for winter required twice more time than the other seasons. The drying time of dimension lumbers required 1.3 times more than boards. The final moisture contents were lowest during spring, highest during winter and similar between summer and fall.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.9 no.1
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• pp.48-52
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• 2000

A hundred wooden foundation piles were found underground during reconstruction for Heungreamun after removing ex-Chosunchongdokbu (ex-Government General of Chosun) building, which was built in 1916, at Kyungbok Palace in Seoul. It is known that larch piles had been collected from the Yaru area near Mt. Baekdu (Changbai). in North Korea. We examined 15 piles for identification of the species and their tree-ring structure. The species is identified as Larix gmelini by microscopic observation. Average diameter of the piles was 27 cm and average age 103 years. We obtained 151 year tree-ring chronology. However, we could not date the exact cutting years because there was no reference chronology yet. When we can obtain chronologies from living trees near the Yaru area, we could make a absolute and longer chronology for studying past history and environments around Mt. Baekdu.

• Journal of Environmental Science International
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• v.12 no.2
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• pp.125-132
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• 2003

This study was executed by China along with the Tumen river, which formed border of North Korea and China. As a result 91 family, 282 genera, 363 species, 57 variety 4 species, total 424 taxa of vascular plants were identified. The examination area was include the region that had various vegetation such as upper swampy land, seashore dune, a river, a high mountain grassy plain, deciduous tree zone, evergreen coniferous forest zone. The followings are representative plants, which found in an examination area but not in South Korea. Picea koraiensis, Larix gmelini var. principis-ruprechtii, Betula playphylla, Ulmus pumila, Populus koreana, Ledum palustre var. diversipilosum, Rhododendron parvifolium, Salix brachypoda, Phacelurus latifolius, Carex gotoi, Carex capricornis, Calla palustris, Aquilegia flabellata var. pumila, Lilium davuricum, Astragalus membranaceus, Trifolium lupinaster, Ledebourieila seselodeds, Polemonium racemosum, Scutellaria baicalensis, Linnaea borealis, Thladiantha dubia, Inula helenium, Trollius hondoensis, Hypocaeris ciliata, Aconitum kirinense, Aconitum arcuatum, Potentilla viscosa var. macrophylla. And there are 21 rare and endangered species, which Korean Forest Sevice designated, such as Aconitum koreanum, Acorus calamus var. angustatus, Polygonatum stenophyllum, Drosera rotundifolia, Iris setosa, Jeffersonia dubia, Lilium davuricum, Lilium cernum, Paeonia obovata, Penthorum chinense, Phacelurus latifolius, Rosa marretii, Sparganium stoloniferum, Thymus quinquecostatus, Trillium tschonoskii, Utricularia japonica, Tripterospermum japonicum, Vaccinium uliginosum, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, etc. Especially, plants like, Acanthopanax senticosus, Jeffersonia dubia and Lillum cernum which have high values of ornamental, and medical use are in an extinction crisis. High swampy land was formed to upper stream of Tumen river. It showed representative vegitation, like Carex sp., Scirpus radirans, Eriophorum latifolium. Wetlands plant and a dune plant were mixed in down stream area of Tumen river. On a dune, seashore plants, such as Carex kobomugi, Salsola collina, Raphanus sativus var. raphanistroides, Rosa rugosa, Scutellaria strigillosa, Linaria japonica, Phacelurus latifolius were appeared frequently.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.21 no.1
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• pp.39-45
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• 1974

The objects of this study are to induce the experimental equation suitable to estimate the height growing process, and to get some information that could be to reduce the error percent on determining the site index. The height growing process per sample plot were made up from the height age curve getted through the stem-analysis of the dominant tree. The 11 equations were calculated in the functional formulas between the age and the dominant height of Alnus hirsuta, Larix leptolepsis, L. Gmelini, P. koraiensis, Abies holophylla, P. rigida, Q. acutissima and Q. aliena. The suitable equation for estimating the guide curve were selected with the highest correlation and the low standard error with comparision on the age-height distributed map as Fig. 2. The suitable equation is different between the species as their calculated results as follows; The growing process of tree height are occasionally found to be polymorphous in the growth pattern as Fig. 3. By this result, the site index are practically found to be always not constant but shows variation to age in same plot as example 5. So, that the site index are estimated from the height-growth curve to age drawing by the stem-analysis or the polymorphic-curve, are concluded to be suitable on the study of site evaluation.

• Journal of Wetlands Research
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• v.5 no.2
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• pp.43-55
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• 2003

Vegetation structure was investigated in the Hyeonchang wetland and its watershed around the Nakdong-gang, Changryeong-county, Gyeongsangnamdo, Korea. from May to August, 2001. The vegetation type of the Hyeonchang wetland was classified into 12 communities based on the actual vegetation map: Phragmites communis community, Zizania latifolia community, Phragmites communis - Persicaria perfoliata community, Salix koreensis community, Persicaria perfoliata - Phragmites communis community, Spirodela polyrhiza community, Persicaria perfoliata community, Cyperus amuricus community, Cyperus amuricus-EchinochJoa crus-galli var. frumentacea community, Phragmites communis-Zizania latifolia community, EchinochJoa crus-galli var. frumentacea community, and Persicaria maackiana community. Among them, Phragmites communis community was the largest (4.3 ha, 24%). The dominant vegetation type were Phragmites communis community, Echinochloa crus-galli var. frumentacea-Persicaria maackiana community, and Cyperus amuricus subcommunity based on the phytosociological method. The vegetation type of the Hyeonchang wetland watershed was classified into five communities based on the actual vegetation map: Pinus densilflora community, Pinus rigida community, Pinus densiflora-Quercus acutissima community, Pinus densiflora-Larix gmelini var. principis-ruprechtii community, and Populus tomentiglandulosa community. Among them, Distribution area of Pinus densiflora community was largest (399.3 ha, 61.8%). And the degree of green naturality of the Pinus densiflora community was 7 and 8 degree.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.17 no.3
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• pp.187-200
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• 2003

This study was conducted by China along with the Tumen River, which cuts between of North Korea and China. As a result 92 family, 287 genera, 470 species, 57 variety 4 formas, total 531 taxa of vascular plants were identified. The surveyed area was include the region that had various vegetation such as upper swampy land, seashore dune, a river, a high mountain grassy plain, deciduous tree zone and evergreen coniferous forest zone. The specfic plants which is protected by The Natural Environmental Preseration Act appeared to 6 taxa, and rare and endangered plants conserved by Forestry Administration were found 21 taxa in these areas. Among them Lilium cernum, Jeffersonia dubia, Acanthopanax senticosus could be regarded as very important one for chinese medicine. Picea koraiensis, Larix gmelini var. principis-ruprechtii, Populus koreana, Betula fusenensis, Ulmus pumila, Ledum palustre var. diversipilosum, Rhododendron parvifolium, Vaccinium uliginosum, Astragalus membranaceus, Aquilegia flabellata var. pumila, Carex gotoi, Carex capricornis etc. are not distributed in the South Korea.