• Journal of Ginseng Research
• /
• v.23 no.4
• /
• pp.217-221
• /
• 1999

We have isolated an antithrombin active polysaccharide in red ginseng by procedures comprising three major steps involving alkaline extraction, anion exchange and gel permeation chromatography. Active polysaccharide behaved as a single band on cellulose acetate membrane electrophoresis. The average molecular mass was estimated to be about 177 kDa by gel filtration. This polysaccharide was found to be an acidic heteropolysaccharide that contains uronic acid moiety $(40.2\%)$, sulfate group $(9.2\%)$ and protein $(1.5\%)$ in addition to neutral sugar consisted of rhamnose, mannose, galactose, arabinose, glucose, fucose and xylose in a molar ratio of 1.00 : 0.88 : 0.86 : 0.78: 0.70 : 0.33 : 0.22. This polysaccharide inhibited blood coagulation via the intrinsic pathway like heparin in a dose-dependent manner. The clotting of fibrinogen by thrombin was also mitigated by the presence of this polysaccharide.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
• /
• v.44 no.3
• /
• pp.519-526
• /
• 2020

Background: Bisphenol A (BPA), known as an endocrine disruptor, is widely used in the world. BPA is reported to cause inflammation-related diseases. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) has been used safely in human for a long time for the treatment of diverse diseases. KRG has been reported of its mitigating effect on menopausal symptoms and suppress adipose inflammation. Here, we investigate the protective effect of orally administered KRG on the impacts of BPA in the liver and uterus of menopausal mice model. Methods: The transcriptome analysis for the effects of BPA on mice liver was evaluated by Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database-based data (GSE26728). In vivo assay to evaluate the protective effect of KRG on BPA impact in ovariectomized (OVX) mice were designed and analyzed by RNA sequencing. Results: We first demonstrated that BPA induced 12 kinds of gene set in the liver of normal mice. The administration of BPA and KRG did not change body, liver, and uterine weight in OVX mice. KRG downregulated BPA-induced inflammatory response and chemotaxis-related gene expression. Several gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA)-derived inflammatory response genes increased by BPA were inhibited by KRG in OVX mice. Conclusion: Our data suggest that BPA has commonly influenced inflammatory response effects on both normal and OVX mice. KRG protects against BPA impact of inflammatory response and chemotaxis in OVX mouse models. Our comparative analysis will provide new insight into the efficacy of KRG on endocrine disrupting chemicals and OVX mouse.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
• /
• v.45 no.1
• /
• pp.119-125
• /
• 2021

Background: Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a natural product with antiinflammatory and anticarcinogenic effects. We have previously reported that the endocrine-disrupting compound bisphenol A (BPA)-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) via nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and promoted the migration of A549. Here, in this study, we assessed the protective effect of KRG on the BPA-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and expression of COX-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in A549 cells. Methods: The effects of KRG on the upregulation of ROS production and COX-2 and MMP-9 expression by BPA were evaluated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACs) analysis, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting. Antimigration ability by KRG was evaluated by migration assay in A549 cells. Results: KRG significantly suppressed the BPA-induced COX-2, the activity of NF-κB, the production of ROS, and the migration of A549 cells. These effects led to the downregulation of the expression of MMP-9. Conclusions: Overall, our results suggest that KRG exerts an antiinflammatory effect on BPA-treated A549 cells via the suppression of ROS and downregulation of NF-κB activation and COX-2 expression which leads to a decrease in cellular migration and MMP-9 expression. These results provide a new possible therapeutic application of KRG to protect BPA-induced possible inflammatory disorders.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
• /
• v.44 no.4
• /
• pp.611-618
• /
• 2020

Background: It is well recognized that gut microbiota is involved in the biotransformation of ginsenosides by converting the polar ginsenosides to nonpolar bioactive ginsenosides. However, the roles of the gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides in humans have not yet been fully elucidated. Methods: Red ginseng (RG) or fermented red ginseng was orally administered to 34 healthy Korean volunteers, and the serum concentrations of the ginsenosides were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In addition, the fecal ginsenoside Rd- and compound K (CK)eforming activities were measured. Then, the correlations between the pharmacokinetic profiles of the ginsenosides and the fecal ginsenoside-metabolizing activities were investigated. Results: For the RG group, the area under the serum concentratione-time curve values of ginsenosides Rd, F2, Rg3, and CK were 8.20 ± 11.95 ng·h/mL, 4.54 ± 3.70 ng·h/mL, 36.40 ± 19.68 ng·h/mL, and 40.30 ± 29.83 ng·h/mL, respectively. For the fermented red ginseng group, the the area under curve from zero to infinity (AUC_∞) values of ginsenosides Rd, F2, Rg3, and CK were 187.90 ± 95.87 ng·h/mL, 30.24 ± 41.87 ng·h/mL, 28.68 ± 14.27 ng·h/mL, and 137.01 ± 96.16 ng·h/mL, respectively. The fecal CK-forming activities of the healthy volunteers were generally proportional to their ginsenoside Rd-eforming activities. The area under the serum concentration-time curve value of CK exhibited an obvious positive correlation (r = 0.566, p < 0.01) with the fecal CK-forming activity. Conclusion: The gut microbiota may play an important role in the bioavailability of the nonpolar RG ginsenosides by affecting the biotransformation of the ginsenosides.

• Proceedings of the Ginseng society Conference
• /
• 1980.09a
• /
• pp.87-113
• /
• 1980

This experiment was carried out to evaluate the effects of Korean ginseng extract on carcinogenesis induced by various chemical carcinogens. Red ginseng extract was used for this study and was administered orally to the experimental animals. Carcinogens that were injected in subscapsular region of ICR newborn mice within 24 hours after birth were 9,10-dimethyl-1,2-benzan-thracene (DMBA), urethane, N-2-fluorenylacetamide(AAF), aflatoxin $B_1$ and tobacco smoke condensate. N -methyl-N -nitroso-N'-nitroguani-dine(MNNG) was injected subcutaneously at the back of wistar rats. Experimental animals were autopsied in immediately after being sacrificed. All major organs were examined grossly and weighted. After fixation histopathological preparations were made for microscopical study. Following results were obtained. In DMBA group sacrificed at the 26th week after the treatment with DMBA, the incidence of lung adenoma was $77\%$ and the average number of the tumor was 17. However, in DMBA combined with red ginseng group, the incidence was $78\%$ and the average number of lung adenoma was 14.1. This indicates that ginseng extract had no effect on the incidence of lung adenoma but decreased the average number of lung adenoma by $17\%.$ In DMBA group sacrificed at the 48th week after the injection of DMBA, the lung adenoma incidence was $88\%.$ The average diameter of the largest lung adenoma was 3.5 cm, the incidence of diffuse pulmonary infiltration was $18\%$ and the average lung weight of male experimental mice was $528.2{\pm}469.1\;gm.$ On the other hand, in DMBA combined with red ginseng group sacrificed at the 48th week, the incidence of lung adenoma was $96\%.$ The average diameter of the largest adenoma was 2.7 cm, the incidence of diffuse pulmonary infiltration was $7\%$ and the average lung weight of male mice was $418.0{\pm}520\;gm.$ These observations show that ginseng extract did not have any inhibitory effect on the incidence of lung adenoma but decreased the average diameter of the largest lung adenoma by $23\%,$ the incidence of duffuse pulmonary infiltration by $63\%$ and the average lung weight of male experimental mice by $21\%.$ From these results we have found that the prolonged administration with ginseng extract showed no inhibitory effect on the incidence of adenoma but it had the inhibitory effect on the proliferation of lung adenomas induced by DMBA. In urethane group sacrificed at the 28th week after the injection of urethane, the incidence of lung adenoma was $94\%$ and the average number of lung adenoma was 8.6. In urethane combined with red ginseng group, the. incidence of lung adenoma was $73\%$ and the average number of adenoma was 6.0. These results indicate that there were $22\%$ decrease of the lung adenoma incidence and $31\%$ decrease of the average number of adenoma in urethane combined with red ginseng group. And in urethane group sacrificed at the 50th week, the incidence of lung adenoma was $98\%$ and the incidence of diffuse pulmonary infiltration was $14\%$. In urethane combined with ginseng group the incidence of lung adenoma was $85\%$ and the incidence of diffuse pulmonary infiltration was $12\%$. Therefore the ginseng administration resulted in $15\%$ decrease of the lung adenoma incidence and $14\%$ decrease of the diffuse pulmonary infiltration incidence. From these results we knew that the prolonged administration with ginseng extract inhibited the incidence and also the proliferation of the lung adenoma induced by urethane. Lung adenoma and hepatoma were induced in the experimental mice sacrificed at the 68th week but not in the experimental mice sacrificed at the 28th week after the injection of AAF. In AAF group sacrificed at the 68th week after the injection of AAF the incidence of lung adenoma was $18\%$ and the incidence of hepatoma was $27\%$. And in AAF combined with ginseng group the lung adenoma incidence was $12\%$ and the hepatoma incidence was $37\%$. So the ginseng seemed to decrease the lung adenoma incidence by AAF, but we were unable to conclude the significant inhibitory effect of the ginseng extract on the incidence of lung adenoma by AAF because the above incidence of lung adenoma were similar to that of control group which was $11\%$. And these experimental data revealed that ginseng extract didn't have any inhibitory effect on the incidence of hepatoma induced by AAF. In aflatoxin $B_1$ group sacrificed at the 56th week, the incidence of lung adenoma was $24\%$ and hepatoma was $11\%$. However in aflatoxin $B_1$ combined with ginseng group the incidence of lung adenoma was $17\%$ and hepatoma was $3\%$ These results indicate that there were $29\%$ decrease of the lung adenoma incidence and $75\%$ decrease of the hepatoma incidence in aflatoxin $B_1$ combined with ginseng group. In tobacco smoke condensate experimental group sacrificed at 67th week, no tumors were induced except just a few lung adenoma. The lung adenoma incidence both in tobacco smoke condensate group and in tobacco smoke condensate combined with ginseng group was $8\%$. And this incidence rate was similar to that of control group. These results indicate that the injection of 320 ug tobacco smoke condensate per ICR newborn mouse was unable to induce lung adenoma in our experiments. In MNNG group sacrificed at the 27th week the tumor incidence was $38.5\%$ and in MNNG combined with ginseng extract group was $37\%$. In MNNG group for investigation of the life span of tumor bearing rats the tumor incidence was $93\%$ and the average life span of tumor bearing rats was 318 days. And in MNNG combined with ginseng extract group the tumor incidence was $96\%$ and the average life span was 337 days. Tumor induced by MNNG was almost sarcoma. This indicates that there was no inhibitory effect of ginseng extract on the tumor incidence, but the extract prolonged the average life span of tumor bearing rats by approximately 19 days.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
• /
• v.29 no.3
• /
• pp.138-144
• /
• 2005

This study was to examine antioxidative effects of ginseng extracts on liver of high fat diet-treated mice. ICR male mice were given high fat diet with red ginseng or white ginseng extracts (500, 1500, 3000 mg/kg/day, orally) for 4 weeks. We also Investigated the relationship between lipid peroxidation and ginseng extracts on the oxidative stress. We measured the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA, a marker of lipid peroxidation), hydrogen peroxide, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione (GSH) in liver tissue. The activities of SOD was generally low in all ginseng extract groups. But the activity of GPx was high in all ginseng extract groups. The hydrogen peroxide contents were similar in almost all groups. The level of GSH was higher in all ginseng extract group in high fat diet (FD) group. The levels of MDA (the end product of lipid peroxidation) were lower in all ginseng extract groups than in FD group. These results that the antioxidant effects of red ginseng and white ginseng extracts prevent oxidative damage by antioxidant effects involving SOD, GPx and increasing the ability of the body to synthesize endogenous antioxidants. It was concluded that ginseng can protect against oxidative stress by high fat diet through its antioxidant properties.

• Preventive Nutrition and Food Science
• /
• v.13 no.3
• /
• pp.212-218
• /
• 2008

We extracted red ginseng with various alcohol concentrations and evaluated total carbohydrate, uronic acid, polyphenols compounds and ginsenoside contents, and yields of alcohol extract. The water extraction (0% alcohol extraction) showed a high level of total carbohydrate content. 10% and 20% alcohol extraction showed the highest uronic acid contents (7,978.8 and $7,872.7\;{\mu}g/mL$ of extract, respectively). The efficiency order of the red ginseng extract (RGE) preparations in liberating polyphenols was: $0{\sim}50%$ alcohol${\geq}\;60%$ alcohol> $70{\sim}90%$ alcohol. Solid contents in RGE were decreased with increased alcohol concentration; the same tendency as with the results of total carbohydrate content. Total ginsenoside contents in $20{\sim}50%$ alcohol extracts showed similar levels ($442,962.9{\sim}47,930.8\;{\mu}g/mL$ of extract). Water extraction showed the lowest ginsenoside content ($14,509.4\;{\mu}g/mL$ of extract). The ginsenoside contents at above 60% alcohol were decreased with increased alcohol concentration. Generally, ginsenoside (Rg2, Rg1, Rf, Re, Rd, Rb2, Rc and Rb1) contents were increased with increased alcohol concentrations. However, Rg3 content was decreased with increases in alcohol concentration.

• The Journal of Traditional Korean Medicine
• /
• v.15 no.1
• /
• pp.97-105
• /
• 2006

To study on antioxidant effects in the liver of 40-week-old mouse, the sample were orally pretreated 5mg/kg/day for 5 days with red ginseng saponin components(total saponin, protopanaxadiol saponin, protopanaxatriol saponin, ginsenoside-Rd, ginsenoside-Re, compound-K) for 5 days. The ability of saponin to protect the mouse liver from oxidative damage was examined by determining the activity of superoxide dismutase(SOD), glutathione peroxidase(GPx) and the contents of glutathione, the level of malondialdehyde, The only protopanaxadiol among the ginseng saponin fractions was significantly increased the hepatic SOD activity(p<0.01). The red ginseng saponin induced a slight increase of GPx activity, especially ginsenoside Rd, compound K and protopanaxatriol treatments significantly increased its activity. The content of glutathione was significantly increased by total saponin, protopanaxadiol and ginsenoside Rd(p<0.01), but the oxidized glutathione level was lowered in all the red ginseng saponin. Finally, the level of malondialdehyde was significantly decreased by ginsenoside Rd and protopanaxadiol. In conclusion, protopanaxadiol and ginsenoside Rd among the saponin fraction were especially increased in the activity of hepatic antioxidative enzyme and decreased the lipid peroxidation that was expressed in term of MDA formation. This comprehensive antioxidant effects of red ginseng saponin seems to be by a certain action of saponin other than a direct antioxidant action.

• Applied Biological Chemistry
• /
• v.26 no.1
• /
• pp.8-18
• /
• 1983

The effects of fat-solvents was investigated on the yield. brown color intensity, UV absorbance patterns, reducing and antioxidant activities, and variation of fatty acid composition of the extracts from white and red ginseng. The yield and intensity of brown color of extracts were generally greater as the polarity of the solvent used became stronger. The intensity of the brown color of extract of red ginseng was greater than that of white ginseng. The orders of reducing and antioxidant activities of extracts of red ginseng was similar that of white ginseng, resulting in decreasing order of: ethanol>methanol>ethyl acetate, acetone>ether>chloroform>benzene, hexane. The ethanol, methanol, and ethyl acetate extracts of red ginseng showed stronger UV absorption than the corresponding extracts of white ginseng. The former also possessed stronger reducing and antioxidant activities than the latter. The composition of the major unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic, linolenic, and nervonic acid) in the ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts from both white and red ginseng did not change appreciably for 60 days at $45^{\circ}C$. In case of the hexane extracts which had shown the weakest reducing and antioxidant activities among the extracts, linolenic acid disappeared almost under the same condition.

• The Korean Journal of Ecology
• /
• v.9 no.4
• /
• pp.193-200
• /
• 1986

In order to investigate the antiotoxic effect of red ginseng extract on serum protein of mouse treated with methyl mercury playing a role as toxic contaminant in ecosystem, variations of the serum protein contents, electrophoretic patterns, and blood components were studied. Mice were divided into 3 groups: Control, group I treated only with methyl mercury, and group II treated together with methyl mercury and red ginseng extract. The total serum protein content of the control group was 5.8g/dl and those of groups I and II were slightly decreased as compared with the control. The control group showed 11 serum protein fractions and groups I and II showed 10 fractions except prealbumin. The amounts of albumin, ${\alpha}_1-$, ${\alpha}_2-$ globulin fractions were decreased and those $\beta$-, $\gamma$-globulin fractions were increased in groups I and II. The amount of each serum protein fraction in group II showed approximately the same level as the control. The hematocrit value and the number of white blood cells of groups I and II were increased, whereas the number of red blood cells showed the decrease as compared with the control.