• Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention
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• v.17 no.1
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• pp.139-145
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• 2016

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is a major public health problem for all ages. Despite the high prevalence of smoking among the Saudi population, there is limited information about levels of urinary cotinine in Saudi children exposed to SHS. The aim of the study was to assess the exposure of schoolchildren to ETS, and measure their urinary cotinine levels. Multistage cluster sampling was carried out, where schoolchildren from 4 schools were randomly chosen from primary schools in Taif city. A questionnaire including questions on SHS exposure and smoking rules in the residence were sent to students parents/guardians. Urine samples were taken and analyzed for total cotinine using chemiluminescent immunoassay. Of the studied children, 38.4% had a smoking father, 61.8%, 41.2% and 49.3% of them were exposed to ETS indoors, outdoors and both indoors and outdoors respectively. The mean urinary cotinine was significantly higher among children exposed to ETS compared to unexposed children. Urinary cotinine levels in children with both indoor and outdoor exposure was significantly higher compared with its level in children with single exposure. A significant positive correlation was found between urinary cotinine concentrations and the number of cigarette packs smoked by parents, and the number of smokers in the residence. The mean urinary cotinine level was significantly higher in children who reported no smoking rules at the residence.. The study revealed a high exposure of Saudi children to ETS. An antismoking media awareness campaign on the harmful effects of ETS should be carried out, in addition to family counseling programs targeted to parents to protect their children from ETS.

• Child Health Nursing Research
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• v.5 no.2
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• pp.198-210
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• 1999

The goal of respiratory management in high risk infants is to maintain proper oxygenation by supporting respiration, therefore to minimize the secondary complications and to promote the maximum growth and development. While on artificial ventilator to achieve this goal, the infants require endotracheal suctioning(ETS) to remove lung secretions. However, the negative effects of ETS in neoates have been documented and include hypoxia, bradycardia, mucosal damage, increased intracranial pressure, and death result. The purpose of the study was to investigate how ETS is currently performed in NICU, which would be beneficial to develop the standardized ETS protocol and to apply it to these population. A national-wide survey on clinical protocol of ETS was performed to 149 neonatal nurses with the average of 3 years and 6 months experience in neonatal nursing, 34.2% of whom was bachelor in nursing. The results showed that about 89% of the nurses initiate En primarily based on the need of the subjects. The aseptic regulation on ETS was used in 83.9% of the subjects. There was no regulation on the length of catheter in 32.9% and on ID/OD ratio in 17.4%. Many nurses administered hyperoygenation/hyperinflation/hyperventilation based on personal knowhow, rather than scientific rationals (77.2%, 40.9%, 75.2%, retrospectively). About 41% of the nurse regulate subjectively the suction power, while 73.8% of them rotate the sub ject's head during suctioning and the half of the nurses was favorable in adapting the closed-suctioning protocol. With the findings of the study, the current clinical application of E% in neonates appears to be based on adult care practices, or personal preference, rather than scientific validation of the safety and effectiveness of the procedure. This study support the needs for developing and applying the standardized ETS protocolin conjunction with the consideration given to the physiologic characteristics of the neonates in respiratory distress.

• Journal of Climate Change Research
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• v.8 no.3
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• pp.221-230
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• 2017

There are two main policies to meet the national goal of reducing Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) emissions in Korea towards Paris Agreement. From 2012 to 2014, Target Management System (TMS) was operated and the Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) has been established since 2015. To compare the impact of TMS and ETS on reducing GHGs, we collected annual GHGs emission reports submitted by individual business entities, and normalized them using a z-variant normalized function. In order to evaluate the impact of those policies, we calculated the amount of GHGs emissions of 73 business entities from 15 business sectors. Those entities emitted $508million\;CO_2eq$, which is 74% of total national GHGs emissions in 2014. The main results of analysis indicate that accumulated GHGs emissions during the period 2012 to 2014 affected by TMS was higher than the national goal of GHGs emission reduction, and only the GHGs emissions in 2014 were in the range of allowed GHGs emissions, set by the Government. In 2015, when ETS initiated, total GHGs emission trading was $4.84million\;tCO_2eq$, which is only 0.9% of total allowance in 2015. However, more than 50% of business entities, who got the allowance of GHGs emission given by the Government, met the goal of GHGs emissions. Particularly, 27 of 73 business entities reduced GHGs more under the ETS rather than the TMS. Even though we analyzed only 4 years' data to demonstrate the impact of TMS and ETS, it is expected to commit the national goal of GHGs reduction target by TMS and ETS.

• International Area Studies Review
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• v.12 no.2
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• pp.297-324
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• 2008

As greenhouse gas (hereinafter GHGs) emissions have been increasing, the world's climate is also rapidly changed. $CO_2$ is the most important artificial GHGs and the annual emissions amount was increased approximately 80% between 1970 and 2004. After suggesting Kyoto Protocol, EU is the second largest emissions embodiment in the world, set the emissions trading scheme (hereinafter EU-ETS) and is trying to reduce $CO_2$ emissions aggressively. This study focuses on the EU-ETS and EU-ETS market to examine their emissions reduction policy and review the result of their efforts. EU-ETS which is composed of 2-step phases had already completed the first phase and is running on the second phase in 2008. Up to now EU-ETS has been proceeding successfully and the amount of $CO_2$ emissions has been decreased. To prepare for their coming events, countries excluded from Kyoto Protocol fulfillment need to have some implication from EU and have to make up their own plans.

• Health Policy and Management
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• v.30 no.4
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• pp.505-512
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• 2020

Background: In monitoring exposure to environmental smoke (ETS), biomarkers can overcome the subjectivity and inaccuracy of self-reporting measurements, and have the advantage of reflecting ETS exposure in all places. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of ETS exposure measurement using biomarkers such as urine cotinine. Methods: This study used the Korea National Health and Nutrition Survey data from 2009 to 2018. A total of 28,574 non-smokers with urine cotinine data were selected for the study. The cotinine concentration and ETS exposure rate using urine cotinine was estimated and then compared with the self-reporting measurements. The degree of agreement among measurements of ETS exposure was confirmed. Results: As a result of measuring ETS exposure with urine cotinine, 23,594 (83.8%) out of 28,574 subjects were classified as to exposure groups. This estimate differs significantly from measurements made by self-reporting. In addition, the average concentration of cotinine in non-smokers has decreased to a 10th level over the past 10 years. Based on the biomarker, the sensitivity of the self-reporting was 8.5%-29.0%, the specificity was 16.4%-19.5%, and the kappa value was 2.0%-5.8%. Conclusion: The findings of our study show that self-reporting measurement does not well reflect the extent to which non-smoker's exposure to smoking materials. Whereas cotinine concentration has decreased significantly over the past 10 years, the ETS exposure rate has not reduced. It strongly suggests the need for intervention in the group of non-smokers exposed to low concentrations of smoke. Therefore, an assessment using biomarkers such as cotinine-based measurement should be made in the Health Plan 2030.

• Clinical and Experimental Pediatrics
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• v.55 no.2
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• pp.35-41
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• 2012

Passive exposure to tobacco smoke significantly contributes to morbidity and mortality in children. Children, in particular, seem to be the most susceptible population to the harmful effects of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). Paternal smoking inside the home leads to significant maternal and fetal exposure to ETS and may subsequently affect fetal health. ETS has been associated with adverse effects on pediatric health, including preterm birth, intrauterine growth retardation, perinatal mortality, respiratory illness, neurobehavioral problems, and decreased performance in school. A valid estimation of the risks associated with tobacco exposure depends on accurate measurement. Nicotine and its major metabolite, cotinine, are commonly used as smoking biomarkers, and their levels can be determined in various biological specimens such as blood, saliva, and urine. Recently, hair analysis was found to be a convenient, noninvasive technique for detecting the presence of nicotine exposure. Because nicotine/cotinine accumulates in hair during hair growth, it is a unique measure of longterm, cumulative exposure to tobacco smoke. Although smoking ban policies result in considerable reductions in ETS exposure, children are still exposed significantly to tobacco smoke not only in their homes but also in schools, restaurants, child-care settings, cars, buses, and other public places. Therefore, more effective strategies and public policies to protect preschool children from ETS should be consolidated.

• The Korean Journal of Air & Space Law and Policy
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• v.26 no.1
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• pp.127-145
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• 2011

European Union unilaterally included the emissions from aviation activities into EU ETS on 19 November 2008 by amending Directive 2003/87/EC. According to the Directive all the emissions(mainly against the CO2) from aviation activities shall be subject to the regulation of EU ETS from 2012. For the period from 1 January 2012 to 31 December 2012, the total quantity of allowances to be allocated to aircraft operators shall be equivalent to 97% of the historical aviation emission s. From 1 January 2013, the allowances will be reduced to 95%. The allocation of allowances which may be applied by each operator with free of charge will be reduced from 85% to 82% from 1 January 2012 to 1 January 2013. Since the Directive will affect every country's airline industry more or less, the nations and international organizations respond variously. The controversial focus is that whether EU has the right to unilaterally include the emissions from international aviation activities into EU ETS. This article firstly analyzes the effect caused by EU ETS to China's airline industry, and then studies the legality of the action of EU subject to current positive international law, and finally draws the conclusion that EU enjoys no such right to unilaterally include the emissions from international aviation activities.

• Journal of the Korean Society for Aviation and Aeronautics
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• v.25 no.4
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• pp.178-186
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• 2017

Air travel has become an essential part of the global society and its sustainable development is expected. Airlines profit structure and network operation will be influenced by internalization of external costs like emission charge. This additional cost of the airlines will be directly pose air ticket fare increase and demand of air passenger will be decreased. EU-ETS is a part of environmental binding to airlines fly to EU territory airports. This study analyzes the impact of emission charges by application of EU-ETS on airlines network change. For long-term forecast, a reliable estimation of the future price of carbon dioxide (CO2) will be used.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Tobacco Science
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• v.19 no.2
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• pp.162-169
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• 1997

An important and somewhat under-emphasized issue in assessing the risk potentially associated with exposure to ETS is the reliability and objectivity of the methods used to measure the actual level of exposure. Objectivity of the science is crucial in this context since this topic tends to elicit strong social, emotional and political responses among the general public and the scientific community alike. This mini-review compares the strengths and limitations of various methods used in determining ETS exposure in scientific investigations. Methods reviewed include: questionnaire, area monitoring, bio-monitoring, and personal monitoring. In particular, results of several recent studies (conducted in the United States, Europe, and the Far East) using personal monitors in combination with questionnaire and bio-monitoring, which contribute to a more reliable, objective and realistic estimates of a person's actual exposure to 575, are discussed.

• Proceedings of the Korea Air Pollution Research Association Conference
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• 1999.10a
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• pp.399-400
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• 1999

From the scientific point of view, any regulation of the emissions of toxic air pollutants in general, and ETS or VOCs in particular, will inevitably be based on exposure levels and consequential health effects, data of this nature is still lacking for most of ETS and VOCs. In this context, the importance of personal monitoring measurements of ETS and VOCs in relation to risk assessment has been emphasized previously.(omitted)