• Journal of Food Hygiene and Safety
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• v.33 no.5
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• pp.361-368
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• 2018

N-nitrosamines are probable or possible human carcinogens, which are produced by the reaction between secondary amines and nitrogen oxide in the acidic environment or by heating. Common risk assessment procedure involves the comparison between exposures expressed in the unit, mg/kg body weight/day and the Health-Based Reference dose expressed in the same unit. This procedure is suitable for the policy decision-making and is considered as inappropriate for the consumers to get information about their dietary decision-making. Therefore, the distributions of NDMA (N-nitrosodimethylamine), NDBA (N-nitrosodibutylamine), the six N-nitrosamines (NDMA, NDBA, NDEA (N-nitrosodiethylamine), NPYR (N-nitrosopyrrolidine), NPIP (N-nitrosopiperidine), and NMOR (N-nitrosomorpholine) in the menus grouped based on the presence of main ingredients and cooking methods were analyzed to generate consumer-friendly information regarding food contaminants. Recipes and intakes were taken from 2014 to 2016 KNHANES (The Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) and only the data from ages of 7 years or older were used. The contamination data were collected from the 2014~2016 Total Diet Study and all the analysis were performed using R software. Rockfish, eel, anchovy broth and pollock were mainly exposed to N-nitrosamines. In terms of cooking methods, soups and stews appeared to contain the highest amount of N-nitrosamines. Cereals, fruits, and dairy products in the ingredient categories, and rice dishes and rice combined with others in recipe categories had the lowest level exposure to N-nitrosamines. In case of N-nitrosamines, unlike other cooking related food contaminants, boiled dishes such as soups and stews and dishes mainly consisting of fishes and shellfishes had highest level of exposure, showing a large discrepancy with the previous thought of processed meat is the main source of N-nitrosamines.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition
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• v.42 no.8
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• pp.1303-1317
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• 2013

The purpose of this study was to determine the sodium (Na) and potassium (K) content of school meals served in elementary and junior high school in Korea. In this study, 872 kinds of school meal dishes were collected from twelve elementary and twelve junior high schools located in four different cities in Korea (Daegu, Masan, Gwangju, and Jeju). The dishes were classified into three main categories; staple dish, subsidiary dish, and dessert. Each main category was further sub-classified into 4 kinds of staple dishes, 15 kinds of subsidiary dishes, and 5 kinds of dessert dishes. The Na and K content of dishes were then analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The Na content of individual dishes showed considerable differences, ranging from 9 to 2,717 mg/100 g. Among the staple dishes, cooked rice contained relatively less Na, but other staple dishes such as a la carte, noodle, and rice-gruel contained considerably high amounts of Na. Regarding the subsidiary dishes, the Na content of salad was low, but those of Jangachi, stir-fried dishes, and kimchi were considerably high. Among the dessert dishes, beverages, fruit, and milk/dairy products contained relatively low amount of Na, while rice cakes and baked goods, and snacks contained noticeably high amounts of Na. Unlike the Na content, the K content between the dishes did not show much variability. Cooked rice and rice cakes contained relatively low amounts of K, similar to other dishes, and ranged from 104 to 220 mg/100 g. The Na/K ratio was especially high in rice cakes and Jangachi, while of the ratio in beverages, milk/dairy products, salad, and fruit were pretty low. The total content of Na and K and the Na/K ratio of elementary school meals were 974 mg, 378 mg and 2.7, respectively, and those in junior high school meals was 1,466 mg, 528 mg and 3.0. The results show that most school meals provide a significant amount of Na but significantly small amounts of K, as suggested by the Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans.