• Journal of architectural history
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• v.21 no.4
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• pp.7-24
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• 2012

The Buddhist cave temple carved into the rock provides a large space for the ritual in general in which a structure of Stupa is built in the center of the space purely for religious worship empty of Sarira, and the temple is formed around this Stupa. Relief-Stupa of the cave temple indicates the similar shape that of Relief-religious worship of flat land temple. However, there appears a small difference in representation since the background of formation of the cave temple differs in that of flat land temple. Specially, Caitya Stupa of currently existing cave temples have been damaged to lose of their original shape only possible to be analyzed the stylistic development through Relief-Stupa from which the characteristic of Stupa could be understood. The early cave temple could be characterized with a balanced structure consists of upturn bowl, steeple stone with simple drum & Hamikawasnagae, in which it appears strongly the detail factor characteristics of drum & steeple of having system with Caitya Stupa. In the post cave temple, the subject of worship moved to statue of Buddha due to the influence of Gandhara, Mathura art which reduced the importance of Stupa. This illustrates in Relief-stupa as well the style change as well as changes in detail factor. The sculpture appeared at the limited location either the wall of Caitya shrine or pillar in vihara cave with stronger decorative meaning. Contrast to the Relief Stupa of early flat land temples or the cave temples mentioned above sculptured with symbolism, however, the post cave temple showed the relief structure based on the plan of flat plan.

• Journal of the Speleological Society of Korea
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• no.85
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• pp.25-27
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• 2008

Ondal Cave is important and significant in terms of cultural value and tourism. In addition, there are abundant historical and cultural resources nearby. If the geographical strength is taken advantage of, the cave would evolve into a great tourist destination and natural education spot. This paper has investigated humanistic environment of Ondal Cave in considerations for the surrounding tourism resources. There are abundant tourism resources around Ondal Cave. However, they are rarely connected with each other. In fact, they are very partially interrelated around Guinsa(temple) only. Furthermore, the number of tourists has gradually decreased. Therefore, it‘s required to further develop tourism programs and surrounding tourism resources.

• Archives of design research
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• v.16 no.2
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• pp.67-76
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• 2003

Today, computer graphics have moved into spotlight within many related fields. The use of computer graphics in many fields as well as in design is now universalized. More than ever, those fields which utilize virtual reality are being vigorously researched and are rapidly progressing. Many advanced countries are obtaining positive results, allowing the world to learn about their culture and history by using virtual reality techniques for the restoration of cultural property. Above all, the West has utilized the diversity of the CAVE system which could best express the artificial system among virtual reality systems. However, in Korea this technology remains in its early stages of development. Moreover, the field, digital restoration of cultural property, which will be discussed in this study, hasn't yet been explored. Accordingly, this study presents the way of digitally restoring cultural property based on the CAVE through the empirical research and suggests the significance and possibility of digitally restoring cultural properly in the CAVE system. For them, this study processes the digitally restoring of Pulguksa Temple and Sokkuram and refers to the limitation and the future study following the investigation of CAVE and the introduction of applicable examples in abroad.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Costume
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• v.50 no.7
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• pp.47-58
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• 2000

Prime Minister Kim tart-song is said to have built this cave temple in the tenth year of the reign of King Kyongdok-wang(742-765) of Unified Shilla(751). The numerous stone Buddhist images in the grotto represent the best Buddhist figure of the Unified Shilla period and of all Korea. The Sokkuram Grotto is composed of the main hall, entrance to the main chamber and antechamber in space. The main hall beyond the small antechamber is round and the ceilling is domed. Within the rotunda sits a majestic Buddha(Amitabha), 3.48m in height and 2.6m in width, carved in granite and facing east. Surrounding the main Seated Buddha are eleven-headed Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, Manjusri Bodhisattva and the other three Buddhist images, Ten disciples, Buddhist figures in the ten Niches in relief. An eleven-headed Avalokltesvara Bodhisattva of boundless mercy is sculptured on the wall behind the main Seated Buddha. Further guarding the Buddha are ten standing Arhans of the Disciples of Buddha. Next, two Devas. one on each side, stand guard. Two Bodhisattvas are the saints who are next to the Seated Buddha in importance, also one on each side. And, There are ten niches around the dome. They contain seven seated Bodhisattvas and one Vimalakirti(the name of a famous lay disciple of the Buddha). Two niches are empty. Consequently, there are total thirty-eight Buddhist images in the Sokkuram cave temple. The Buddhist images have been reguarded as masterpieces of Buddhist art and Shilla culture of Unified Shilla in the eightth century. The Buddhist images are represented very dear, elegance and beauty of detail skill

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.17 no.4
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• pp.129-152
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• 2008

Early Buddhist rock cave temples of India, in spite of being an origin of Buddhist temples, has little been studied in Korea. After field studies and an interpretation of their forms in conjunction with religious life, precedent theories are supplemented and refuted as follows. Starting from the 2nd century B,C., Buddhist ascetic disciples digged residential rock caves, called vihara, for protection from monsoon rain and hot weather, A typical arrangement was settled -a courtyard type, with 3 side rows of tiny one-person bedroom and a front veranda with columns. Also digged were Chaitya caves, in line with viharas, to worship, which is the tumulus of Buddha's relics. I suggest that the original type of chaitya a simple circle cave with a stupa, suitable for circumambulating ceremonies. I refute the existing theory presenting Barabar caves of Ajivika as a chaitya origin, featuring empty circular room without a stupa. I also interpret a typical apsidal plan as being a simple result of adding a place of worshipping rites in front of the stupa. Enclosing columns around a cylindrical stupa is a result of reinforcing both the divine space and circumambulating ceremonies, with elongation toward hall. Finally the chaitya came to have a grandeur apsidal plan with high vault ceiling nave and a side aisle as in Western cathedrals with large frontal horseshoe arch windows. The Buddha image, which had become a new worshipping object, was integrated into the stupa and interior surface. First the stupa and then the statue was introduced to residential Viharas. Therefore, I suggest that the vihara should be renamed as 'chaitya' as a worshipping place, by establishing statue rooms without bedrooms at all. The functionally changed vihara is similar in form to a 'rectangular type of chaitya', little known and developed in different routes. A columned inner courtyard gradually becama an offering place, like Hindu mandapa, Buddhist caves ware changed to a kind of Tantric and Hindu temple by means of statue worshipping offering rituals.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.20 no.4
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• pp.135-156
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• 2011

Stupa in India divides into two: stupa in flatland temple with a character of tomb, and devotional stupa made for offering. The difference of such character is made by whether there is any Sari, and main center for worship is flatland stupa where Sari is settled. Stupa in flatland temple is targeted to that with Sari, whose character is applied into Relief-stupa. The characteristics of Relief-stupa can be divided into two: a relief with similar type of flatland stupa in the form, and a devotional relief in which drum and upper part of tower are developed. The Relief-stupa of flatland temple could be confirmed at tower gate of Sanchi tower, decoration of handrail, and the wall attached to Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda stupa. To the contrary, drum and upper wheel part in the Relief-stupa are developed in the votive stupa. Such characteristics had different features according to usage: The example of former is that there is an expression of landscape of stupa built at that time, and the example of latter is those which had similar type of stone cave temple or offering tower near stupa. Thus, the meaning is subject to the existing of Sari. Stupa building developed along with the development of Buddhist structural activity with the existing popular tradition. And its influence was expanded along with various cultures locally. And, the structure and tower reflected various types and thoughts. Stupa reflected its building site and method according to types, and was created in a new form by its usage.

• Journal of Ecology and Environment
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• v.38 no.1
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• pp.85-93
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• 2015

In 2013, the epidemics of pine wilt disease caused by the pine wood nematodes (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) resulted in damages to the forests of black pine (Pinus thunbergii Parl.) trees in Jeju Island, Korea. Among the affected trees, an old black pine tree at Cave Temple on Mt. Sanbangsan was included and died due to the prevalence of pine wilt disease. The tree was on Mt. Sanbangsan, which was designated as a National Scenic Place with the Number 77 and was believed to be more than 400 years old in age. By examining the disc of the tree stem obtained from the height of 2 m, we counted the tree rings from 4 different directions and cross-dated the readings by comparing the records of drought simulated from the BROOK Model. Our analysis indicates that the tree seems to have grown since late 1860s. Contrary to the belief of the general public, we can conclude that the age of the tree was estimated to be at maximum 150 years, which means that it was not the same old tree as was shown in the painting of the Tam-Ra-Sun-Ryeok-Do (an old painting book for the Inspection Tour of Jeju Island) published in 1702. Discussion was extended to the life history of the tree in growth and leaning and the measures to protect the tree species from the damages of the pine wilt disease caused by pine wood nematodes.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.50 no.2
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• pp.116-139
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• 2017

Naksansa Temple was famous for a miracle temple where Lee Haeng-ri(李行里), King Ikjo(翼祖), had prayed for offspring and soon begat King Dojo(度祖). According to the First King's Annals("太祖實錄"), King Dojo was the person who directly received prophecy of founding a Joseon. For these reasons, Naksansa Temple received attention concerning the foundation of Joseon. The birth story of King Dojo and his father's prayer at the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva cave(觀音窟), Naksansa Temple, was well known among the noblemen and royal families until the Late Joseon period. Lee Seoung gye(李成桂) paid particular attention to the Naksansa Temple, and King Sejo(世祖) also made people rebuild the temple when he went for a royal tour in Gangwon-do. Naksansa Temple was built during the time when King Sejo made many temples in order to strengthen the royal authority. King Sejo made people extensively rebuild the temple, praying for health and longevity of King Yejong(his son). King Sejo's will of rebuilding the Naksansa Temple was very strong. The residents of the area had to pay a huge cost because the rebuilding of the Naksansa Temple was a big construction. Hak-yeol(學悅), who had a responsibility of rebuilding the Naksansa Temple, forcedly obtained supplies as he received protection from the royal family. Naksansa Temple thrived with the protection of the royal family after rebuilding. King Yejong and Seongjong gave Naksansa Temple slaves and fields(田地). He also bestowed upon the temple the salts which was the tribute paid by Gangwon-do. In order to protect the precincts of the Naksansa Temple, the government closed the Yang Yang Main Street near Naksansa Temple and built a new road. And the signs of preventing fishing(捕漁) was built along the coast of Naksan in four kilometers in order to keep people out. Although the Naksansa Temple declined in the late Joseon period, it still received support under the protection policy and maintained its reputation as an original Buddhist shrine.

• Journal of Science of Art and Design
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• v.13 no.1
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• pp.61-86
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• 2008

Buddhism and Buddhist art originated in India, but when they were introduced to different countries, they created an international environment. Buddhism was introduced as cultural package, with written texts, visual images, rituals, and the organization of monasteries. Buddhist art originated in India during the reign of King Asoka and then was developed under the political, intellectual, artistic, religious, social and natural environments of the regions. The stupa and the chaitya halls create monastic environment. The natural environment of the trade routes and caravans in the Central Asian deserts preserved brilliant-colored murals and helped spread tram India to China. When Buddhism and Buddhist art were introduced to China, Korea, and Japan, Buddhism became a part of government institution and social organization. Gigantic statues were carved in caves in mountains for political purposes. The Chinese transformed the stupa into a square pillar and created pagodas with tiled roofs in tower forms. Koreans not only transmitted the Buddhist art from China to Japan, but it also changed it with originality in the iconography of the pensive bodhisattva images and in the architecture of Seoggulam. The official ideology of Neo Confucian philosophy brought the rise of Chan Buddhism. Zen monasteries in Japan created unique environments by establishing the Zen Buddhist garden. to prompt believers to meditate. An important development in Buddhist art is the Esoteric Buddhist art in China and Tibet. This category belongs to the intellectual, religious as well as artistic environments. The Tibetan deities with consorts in their embrace symbolize the union of the god and the devotees. Buddhist art created a unique environment that was spread out to many nations and changed greatly over time.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Surveying, Geodesy, Photogrammetry and Cartography
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• v.2 no.1
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• pp.54-64
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• 1984

This paper is a study on structural measurement by using a terrestrial camera. The aim of this paper is to understand the method of a composition by analyzing the geometrical compositive ratio of threestoried pagodas at Gamun-Sa, Gosun-Sa, Bulguk-Sa, Seated iron Buddha in Kwang-Jn, and Main-Seat Buddha at Sukkuram Cave-temple. Measured data and contour maps are accurately obtained by means of photogrammetry, and the following points are able to he found by analyzing them. At first, for Stone Pagodas. the breaths of the Okgesuks are made to the ratio, 8 : 7 : 6. And when an equililateral triangle and an 45$^{\circ}$ isosceles triangle are drawn of which the bases are the length of the upper Gabsuk, and then a circle is drawn whose radius is the length between the vertexes of the two triangles and its center is the vertex of the former the circle passes the upper line of the third Oksin. Also it can be found that an $70^{\circ}$ isosceles triangle being drawn at base line, the triangle passes the edge point of the upper Gabsuk and the center of the third Okgesuk. Also for Budha statues, it can be found that circles whose center is that of eyes can be drawn, and if 2 lines which pass the shoulder and the center of Buddha's body are extended, they intersect the knees.